Abstract: What ancient classicism,Renaissance neoclassicism and the eighteenth century Neoclassicism, share in common is that their premises and fundamental aims belong to something classical. There are many ideas and propositions shared by those representatives in literary criticism. Their explanation and expounding of Nature can be categorized as such an example. But of course, they also extend their theories by adding new elements, which show the continuance and development from former phases. This thesis will analyze how those representatives from the three periods embody heritance and continuance of idea Nature in their critical theories.
　　Key words:Nature;literary criticism
　　
　　In a broad sense, from ancient classicism to Renaissance neoclassicism and then to the eighteenth century Neoclassicism, what the critics share in common is that their premises and fundamental aims expressed in their literary critical works are all to some extent related to something classical. Then what is classical? Though a comprehensive term, when applied to historical terms, it means the principles and values that characterize the art and thought of the ancient Greece, and also the later attitudes and development in western culture, which are obviously and directly influenced by those principles and values (W.J.Bate 3). There are many ideas and propositions shared by those representatives in literary criticism. But of course, they also develop their theories by adding new elements, which are distinctly different from theories in former phases.
　　Here I trace and expound the idea “Nature” expressed in works of Aristotle, Horace, Longinus, Sir Philip Sidney, Boileau, John Bryden, who are representatives of ancient classicism, Renaissance neoclassicism and the late 17th-middle 18th century Neoclassicism. These critics not only form their own explanation or definition of the idea of Nature, but also embody heritance and continuance of Nature in their critical theories. In all, until the middle 18th century, the three phases of critical theories present a continuous development.
　　In ancient classicism, critics basically consider Nature as an object of imitation, the persisting or objective form in universe. The representatives are Aristotle, Horace and Longinus,
　　Aristotle’s Poetics is the first extant treatise on poetry in the western world and it is not only the most important work in the ancient classics, but also has great influence on the literary criticism history. Particularly critics in Renaissance and early 18th century took Poetics as a guide for literary criticism. In Poetics Aristotle doesn’t give an explicit definition or specific explanation about what is Nature. He shows his idea of Nature in the process of expounding the idea of poetry. He considers that poetry is the imitation, but differentiates from Plato’s opinion that poetry is only the copies or appearances, far removed from reality. Aristotle believes that the poet’s imitation is such a process that poets take the form from the Nature and reshape it to produce a kind of moral purpose, “through pity and fear effecting the proper purgation of these emotions.”(Aristotle 5) In chapter IV of poetics, Aristotle explains that poetry in general has sprung from two causes—the instinct of imitation, and the instinct of harmony. Aristotle takes the persisting forms (e.g. various objects in the universe) and general truth (e.g. through imitation man learns his earliest lesson), as the model of the imitation and reproduce or remake it with “natural gift developed by degrees their special aptitude” (3) into a new harmony, one of which is the birth of poetry. The poet uses this principle to prevent abused imitation, and to produce ultimate form of Nature. In this sense, the poet is both an imitator and creator. He imitates Nature by means of being a Maker. So for Aristotle, Nature is reality, the source of Art, the object of imitation, and through imitation by means of being a maker to bring Nature to a completion.
　　Another representative of classicism is Horace. A main thread goes through Horace’s Art of Poetry is about Nature, Art and their relationship in poem’s creation. He succeeds Aristotle’s idea that poetry is imitation, but his interpretation of imitation not only recognizes the importance of imitating Nature, but also emphasizes the Arts in imitation(Adam 67). In Art of Poetry, Horace explains the conception of Nature, mainly in two aspects: first, it means the common thing, the truthful life in the real world. In his opinion, the poem should take materials from world, Nature. Take “real life and manners” as his model of writing, as the source and fountain of the writing, draw the language that will see like that of real life from commonplaces and natural world. This is also his main idea of Nature. While during the process of imitating Nature, the poet must take care of and obey certain laws and rules of Art, because guided by Art, the poet can produce decorum in poems, can avoid faults by seeming vision of art, such as aiming as smoothness, but rather failing of sinew and spirit, intending the grand style, but bombastic (Horace 1); because guided by Art,, poets can make the common materials molding of poems placed and organized in order and arrangement, to show the dignity; because guided by artistically skills, the poem coming from real life, commonplaces will characters vividness, plot beauty and values, and draw reader more attention rather than let them say “devoid of substance, more truthful trifles”(6). So Horace suggests letting the imitation of Nature coalesce with the law of the Art. With regard to the old quotation “whether a praise worthy poem is the creation of Nature of Art.” His answer is “so much does each ask of the order and swear eternal alliance” (8).To Horace, Nature also means a native gift, an inborn endowment given by God. He says, “It was the Greeks who had at the Muse’s hand the native gift, the Greeks who had the utterance of finished grace, for their sole greediness was for glory.”(7) Such as Homer, who is endowed with great gift, employs his great inborn, natural abilities to compose those great works. This kind of gift, due to its preciousness, which is owned by rare people, is “something happier than poor rules of art”(6). According to Democitus, so some instance, second-rate poets, who neither men nor gods nor bookstore will attach any value to him, would neither shorten nails, beards, nor bath in order to win the regards and name of poets. But even though this kind of gifts of is important, the writing of poem is still in need of the studying the rules and laws of art, “ whence the wealth of matter is gained , what nurtures and forms the poet, what becomes him and what not, what is the result of right doing and of wrong.”(7)
　　In the treatise concerning sublimity, Longinus gives the idea of Nature in his explanation of how to get to the Sublimity. Directed against the idea hold by somebody that “all who would bring such terms (sublimity) under technical rules to be entirely mistaken.” (Longinus 3) and “Genius (the ability of acquiring sublimity) is inbred, not taught; there is one art for the things of genius, to be born with them.”(3) He confutes that “in a sense all greatness is exposed to a danger of its own, it left to itself without science to control.”(4) So does Nature. “Nature, a law to herself as she mostly in all that is passionate and lofty.”(3) “She is indeed herself the first and originating principles which underlines all things.”(4) Nature like a horse, also needs bit. Only Nature is controlled, is trained, can greatness be achieved. — “yet is so creature of random impulse delighting in more absence of method,”(4) “yet rules of degree, of fitting occasion, of unerring practice, and of application can be determined by method and are its contribution.”(4) Only Nature combining with science of control can achieve the sublimity and the greatness. Here Longinus makes a metaphor by applying to literature. “Nature fills the place of good fortune, Art of good counsel.”(4) As to their place, he points out Nature and Art complete each other. Neither of them is more important than another. Here, for Longinus, Nature is the outset, basis; Art is no longer the imitation of Nature, but as independence, which guides and restrains Nature toward the opposite. “That of all good things the greatness is good counsel, and what where the latter is wanting, the former is at once cancelled.”(4) In expounding the relation between Nature and Art, Longinus displays some similarities with Aristotle in that with order and law. Art improves Nature , complete Nature. But their conception of Nature differs much. For Aristotle, Nature is the source imitated, reshaped by Art in certain order. But in Concerning Sublimity, Longinus explains Nature as greatness of man’s soul gained by imitation and emulation of previous great poets and writers. In Chapter VIII, from the source of Sublimity, Longinus expounds that sublimity is unit of Nature, which contains the faculty of grasping great conceptions, thoughts and ideas and an inspired and vehement passion, and of thought and diction, the noble phraseology and dignified and spirited composition. And due to this sublimity contained by great poetry and produce beautiful and genius effects “which please always and please all.”
　　Sir Philip Sidney is the first of the great English poet critics. His Apology for Poetry presents a larger synthesis of Renaissance ideas. In Renaissance neoclassicism, critics interpret Nature as something of normal course of the world, or ideal, universal truth by which art should be guided (Boris Ford 43). We can see this just from his argument about the idea of Nature. For Sidney, Nature contains two concepts and each has two tiered meanings. Firstly, Nature means the normal course of the universe, including both all the existing, normal things in the world, and the human and their behavior also part of the God’s creation. This normal course of the universe is also First Nature, Which Art comes from with regard to this point, it shows some similitude and inheritance from the ancient classical critics, who consider that Nature is the object, the source of imitation. Nature is all the principles, object, the content that Art consists of, depends on. Then he exemplifies this through diverse artists occupying different arts. For example, the astronomer look upon the stars, and then settles down rules and form the study of astrology, the musician resorts to Nature to decide which by Nature agrees, or which not. The physician weighs man’s body and decides and finds the treatment. But at the same time, according to Sidney, though man is the maker, inventor of various concrete arts, man is still the makings of the Heavenly Maker—God. So man and their behaviors are also objective, part of Nature. So moral philosophers study upon the natural virtues, vices and passions of man, historian studies what man have done, grammarian speaks the rules of human speech, even metaphysics, a very abstract even counted supernatural art, must build its basis on the depth of Nature. There are two specific meanings forms what Longinus calls First Nature.
　　But a poet who owns the force of divinity is not satisfied with such a direct subjection to Nature like other artists, he extracts the essence of the First Nature and elevates with his inspired intention onto Another Nature, to bring forth new forms such as “never in Nature, as the Heroes, Demigods, Cyclopes, Chimeras, Furies and such like.”(Sidney 4). Poets bring forth the First Nature a very rich tapestry the First Nature can’t achieve. At the same time, poets not only endow his characters, e.g. Cynus, so right a prince in Xenopho’s works, not only a particular excellency, as the First Nature might have done, but also to draw the universality from Cynus, to bestow Cynus as an archetype to produce many Cynuses. In this sense, Nature means universality, archetype renewed and elevated from the God-made Nature. Thus Nature gains a more general pattern in meanings. This second Nature possesses such a universal truth as to be considered as a guide, a consultant in the Art.
　　By the close of the 17th century, neoclassic theory attained its most complete form and lasted until the middle of the 18th century. This third phase is more inclusive, penetrating and attain a largeness of outlook and human applicability. Neoclassical theory, on one hand, brings the mind back to classical legacy in ancient Greece, to discover fundamental aims and values; on the other hand, neoclassical theory gains further developments and endows it with new meanings, and new characteristics.
　　Nicholas Boileau Despreaux is one of most influential critic in French neoclassicism and his Art of Poetry is read as a codification of French neoclassicism. Boileau and his theory produce a great influence upon both French and English writers, and critics in Neoclassicism period. In the Art of Poetry Boileau tells several principles in the composition of literature. But above all, he emphasizes the good sense, the reason to be the guiding in whatever you write “Never deviate from Nature” (Boileau9). Because Boileau thinks that the good, the reason is the first principle, he says, “Love reason;let all that you write borrow both its luster and its worth from her alone.” To explain this, he takes the application of rhyme, for example, “In writing poetry, from the outset you should accustom your mind; apply the good sense, though taking great efforts to search for the right rhyme” (1). Once you have always good sense to guide you, then “rhyme bends willing to the yoke of reason(1)”, just as the slave’s duty is to obey. Follow Nature, more in the direction of good sense, “If you swerve from it a little, you’ll be finished”(1). Nature means good sense, the reason. To follow Nature, means to always keep the good sense, avoid these excesses. Don’t furnish your description of subject with useless details. Keep the style simple and artistic and agreeable rather than let pride and artificiality to sullen your work. Let the sense put word sets in the right place and mark the final caesura. In Canto II, Boileau says that in composing poetry and songs, both good sense and Art are necessary. But how to gain Art? Boileau proposes to imitate the classical writers to imitate Nature, to learn from Homer. To follow ancient writers such as Theocritus and Virgil, and their graceful delicate writings, “only their learned verses can teach you an author’s art of coming down to earth without vulgarity.”(4) The art how to sing of Flora, field of Pomona, orchards; how to stir two shepherds into flute combat, sing the sweat lure of love, changes Narcissus into a flower, cover Daphne with bark; and art by which sometimes the eclogue still makes countryside and woods worthy of the consul, comes from their profound love and keen perceptions for any wide knowledge of Nature. So try to get passions and rapture from Nature, and love Nature, emerge yourself into Nature. So it is not enough to have a good sense, reason to guide you in writing, one must have the love for great Nature, so Boileau says, “Yet if these blessed caprices are to be well expressed, it is not enough to be a poet, one must be alover.”(4) Let’s combine reason and sensibility together to produce great works.
　　The explanation of Nature reflects the agreement of Boileau with that of the ancient classics. They both think that Nature is real natural world and the truthful life, all these matters being imitated by poets, artists. In his the Art of Poetry, Boileau’s idea of Nature really is a more thorough and comprehensive one. Besides meaning reason, natural world and truthful life, it also includes another tier of meaning—the human nature. When he talks about the hero, the character, he insists that the hero should be a round character rather than those wonderful, flawless heroes of romance, “give the great hearts a few weakness.”(7) Because this is the human nature that no person is absolutely perfect. Those flaws, little fault of character just represent the human nature and mark the character. Just like Hamlet in Shakespeare, he is considered as an archetype due to his weakness and his flaws in his character to speak truth of human nature, so Hamlet gains the approbation for the time being and forever. Boileau takes “Achilles”, for example “would be unsatisfasctory if he were less hasty and hotheaded.”(7) Human nature determines that no man is perfect, so a multi-angle description is truthful. So in order to follow the more various and more wide human nature, writers should “study the customs of centuries and countries.”(8) To speak different languages for different passion: “anger is arrogant, and demands haughty words; dejection expresses itself in less lordly terms.”(7) When describing character in everything he does be sure that he is in accord with himself, and that to the very end is the same man as he was in the beginning. In all be sure that makes your picture of characters natural, truthful and painted in most vivid colors, as “Nature, fertile in individual character, appears in every soul marked with different trains.”(9)
　　Dryden holds a key position in the development of neoclassicism. He is one of the first great English poets in detail and applies the neoclassical ideas of “refinement”, “propriety”. But he doesn’t follow blindly to the French maxims of art of writing and is against the over-refinement of French language and extols “more capable of virile thought” of English. In his Prose Passages, he comments Shakespeare as “he had the largest and most comprehensive soul.”(Dryden 1) Because “all the images of Nature were still present to him,”(1) “he was naturally learned, he need not the spectacles of books to read Nature. He looked inwards and found her there.”(1) In light of comment on Shakespeare, Dryden defines Nature as the permanent and universal truth underlying humankind, “because Shakespeare has a good understanding of life and human and expressing the lasting truth contained in them.”(1) Just because of Shakespeare has such a deep mastering and representing of human nature in his dramas, Dryden considers Shakespeare has the wit. According to him, wit means the deep thought in common language, which is a true and lively expression of Nature. So Dryden says he admires Shakespeare and his profound understanding of Nature.
　　In his Preface to Fables, Dryden praises Chaucer as “a man of most wonderful comprehensive nature”, (2) “owning wide experience and close observation of life and all sciences about human nature.”(2) And all these capabilities enable Chaucer to compass the “various manner” and “humors” into his Canterbury tales, which is a great verisimilitude of contemporary society. And just in this sense, Shakespeare and Chaucer are the poets of Nature. Dryden’s interpretation of Nature corresponds to that of Boileau. They both connect Nature with mankind and to explore micro cosmos as part of whole cosmos. On the other hand, Boileau’s idea of Nature is more inclusive as he considers reason, good sense also as part of Nature.
　　The idea of “Art is imitation of Nature” expressed in Aristotle’s Poetics can be considered as starting point, which many other ideas, attitudes and critics concern with and evolve from. Generally speaking, ancient classicism considers Nature as objective, eternal world, which is the object, source for artists to imitate. The ancient critics have a strong faith in Nature, in this ordered and harmonious universe. So they try their best to imitate and complete Nature with their arts. The Renaissance neoclassicism continues this understanding of Nature, but they expound Nature to something as archetype or universality guiding Art. This part of Nature is extracted, according to Sidney, as golden delivered by poets based on the brazen First Nature. By the close of the17th century, neoclassicism theory gain more complete form and becomes more inclusive. The idea of Nature, expressed by typical representatives in this phase such as Dryden, Boileau, includes meanings expressed by ancient classics, but also good sense, reason and human nature, which also distinctively mark the literary scene of period.
　　However, one point underlying classical theory, ancient, or neoclassical, is that they put all of its concerns and faith in the objective, pervading forms which characterizes the rationally ordered universe composing of the reality of universe, truth as objects for Arts to imitate or duplicate. Their primary concern is the external reality and classical theories are obvious of artists’ subjective feelings. Their total emphasis on objectivity brings forth the protest of Romanticism on behalf of individual feelings in late 18th century. Romanticism believes that what is most “natural” is man’s spontaneous, immediate and direct feelings. Human mind, the source of subjective feelings, is creator of Nature, because only through our subjective feelings, can we touch and find those objective forms, principles and also human reasons and human nature.
　　
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