论文部分内容阅读
一、篇章结构
一篇文章，不管有多少段，其结构一般由引言 （introduction）、正文 （body） 和结尾 （conclusion） 三大部分组成。通常情况下每一部分往往又是由一个主题句而展开的。
1. 引言的常用呈现方法
1） 主题句法：开门见山，直接点出主题或亮出作者对问题的看法。
Deserts are found where there is little rainfall or where rain for a whole year falls in only a few weeks time. Ten inches of rain may be enough for many plants to survive if the rain is spread throughout the year. If it falls， within one or two months and the rest of the year is dry， those plants may die and a desert may form.
2） 引语法：引用名言或常用的习语、谚语等作为文章的开头。
“The measure of a mans real character is what he would do if he knew he would never be found out.” said Thomas Macaulay.
Some thirty years ago， I was studying in a public school in New York. One day， Mrs Nanette ONeill gave an arithmetic 26 to our class. When the papers were 27 she discovered that twelve boys had made exactly the 28 mistakes throughout the test.
3） 问题法：用一个问题来引出文章的主题。
If there is no difference in general intelligence between boys and girls， what can explain girls poor performance in science and mathematics？
It seems to be that their treatment at school is a direct cause. Mathematics and science are seen as subjects mainly for boys， and therefore， as girls become teenagers， they are less likely to take them. Interestingly， both boys and girls often regard the subjects for boys as more difficult.
又如：
We know the famous ones—the Thomas Edisons and the Alexander Graham Bells —but what about the less famous inventors？ What about the people who invented the traffic light and the windshield wiper（雨刮器）？Shouldnt we know who they are？ （2011江苏卷）
4） 对立法：先引出人们对某一问题的不同看法， 然后提出作者自己的看法。
Traditionally， a student leaving school at eighteen would go straight to university and study for three or four years before joining the world of work and beginning the slow climb up the career ladder. However， this year， like last year and the year before， thousands of young people will travel to every point of the compass and work on projects for up to a year before returning to the UK to enter university.
5） 数据法：用精确的数据来引出问题，引起人们注意。
For decades， Florida has been attracting older residents. In fact， according to the national population survey conducted in 2000， Florida was home to the largest population of people aged 65 and older. This group accounted for nearly 18% of the states population. This national average was only about 13%， so it is not surprising that Floridas Charlotte County is known as the oldest place in the USA. 2. 正文的结构
正文部分通常由一段或几段组成，主要是从不同侧面，不同角度对文章的主题展开讨论，各段所阐述或讨论的主题必须与文章的主题一致。正文部分与开始段落紧密相连，且围绕开始段落逐步、层层深入去展开。
一般正文部分的每一段由主题句、扩展句和结论句构成，并且扩展句往往有好几句。
例如：
Since fuel， oxygen and heat must be present in order for fire to continue， one or more of these things must be removed or reduced to extinguish a fire. （1） If the heat is reduced by cooling the material below a certain temperature， the fire goes out. The cooling method is the most common way to put out a fire. Water is the best cooling material because it is low in cost and easy to get.
（2） Another method of extinguishing fire is by cutting off the oxygen. This is usually done by covering the fire with sand， steam or some other things. A blanket may be used to cover a small fire.
（3） A third method is called separation， which includes removing the fuel， or material easy to burn from a fire， so that it can find no fuel.
（4） The method that is used to put out a fire depends upon the type of fire. Fires have been grouped in three classes. Fires in wood， paper， cloth and the like are called Class A fires. These materials usually help keep the fire on. Such fires can be stopped most readily by cooling with water.
文中划线部分为主题句，（1）、（2）、（3）句是扩展句，都是围绕主题句来展开的，第（4）句是结论句。
3. 结尾的呈现
结尾段用于概括全文的内容，往往含有最终主题句或者一个预测，或者与首段提到的例子互应。结尾段主要起总结概括全文的中心思想的作用。常用结尾段的写法有：
1） 结论性结尾：照应开头的引言，进一步强调文章的中心思想或作者的观点。
2） 建议性结尾：就文章中讨论的问题提出解决的方法或建议。
3） 引语性结尾：引用名人名言、谚语来总结全文，起到激励和教育的作用。
4） 反问式结尾：以问句的形式表明肯定的意义，具有明显的强调作用，以引起读者思考。
5） 转折性结尾：指出所讨论问题的消极影响或有可能产生的不良后果。
4. 高考阅读考查与篇章结构题
考查文章篇章结构类的阅读理解体裁一般为新闻报道、议论文、科普短文或说明文。考查角度通常为：①从段落的组织方式理解文章的基本结构；②按照写作手法来理解文章的篇章结构。
1） 常见的提问方式及选项
★常见的提问方式
This passage is organized in the pattern of .
The passage is mainly developed by .
The passage is organized in order of .
Which of the following shows the organization of the passage？
The author presents this passage by .
The first paragraph serves as a（n） .
The author develops the passage mainly by .
Which of the following shows the structure of the passage？
★常见的选项有：
① 名词（短语）类选项：time and events / time order / time； comparison and contrast； cause and effect； definition and classification； effectiveness / importance / complexity
② 动词ing形式类选项：analyzing causes / presenting a cause and analyzing its effects； making comparisons / comparing opinions from different fields / examining differences； following the time order / following the natural time order； providing typical examples ③ by+名词类选项：by classification， by comparison， by example， by process
2） 策略聚焦
英语文章经常使用主题段和主题句。主题段通常在文章的开头，简要概括文章的中心思想，然后是正文部分，最后为结论部分。主题句根据段落的写作手法可能在段落的开头，也可能出现在段落的中间或末尾。在做此类试题时，要快速浏览文章，学会把握文章的脉络，理解段落层次之间的关系，弄清作者的写作手法，如：通过举例、比较和对比、因果逻辑、时间、空间等手法来阐明主题观点。
3） 实战演练
Ever since they were first put on the market in the early 1990s， genetically modified （GM， 转基因） foods have been increasingly developed and marketed in many countries in the world， mainly on the basis of their promise to end the worldwide food crisis. But can GM technology solve world hunger problems？ Even if it would， is it the best solution？
Despite what it promises， GM technology actually has not increased the production potential of any crop. In fact， studies show that the most widely grown GM crop， GM soybeans， has suffered reduced productivity. For instance， a report that analyzed nearly two decades of research on major GM food crops shows that GM engineering has failed to significantly increase US crop production. （2011陕西卷）
The author develops the second paragraph mainly .
A. by classification B. by comparison
C. by example D. by process
二、语言文体
英语已成为国际语言，全世界很多国家都把英语列为第二外语，全球使用英语的人更是多达数十亿，不同地区的人在不同的场合使用的英语是不同的。一般来说，学英语时要注意以下两个方面的英语差异：
（1） 书面语和口语
英语中的书面语使用要求比较规范，结构比较严谨；而口语的句式则相对比较简短，结构比较松散，有时候中间还夹有各种插入语，如 do you suppose， do you believe， do you think， do you imagine等，有时一句话只说了半句就又转入另一句话，而且省略句比较多。有些时候还会夹杂些方言、俚语，这些因素都可能造成理解上的障碍。此外口语使用者在自然对话中多使用“and”和“but”等词来连接简单句，或者使用很多单一动词结构、主动语态，而很少使用复杂的并列句或从句结构和被动语态。而且，在一般的日常谈话中，说话者常使用直接引语和通俗的口语语言。而书面语中频繁出现的是主语、谓语、定语、状语、表语等复杂的从句结构。除此之外，书面语使用者常运用被动语态、过去完成时、间接引语、状语从句以及倒装句等手段来强调时间、空间上的跨度和问题的重要性。通过阅读一些科普性的书籍，报刊杂志上的专业论文等，我们就会发现文中一般都用书面语。反过来当我们阅读小说或是欣赏英美电影作品时，其中的人物对话多使用口语，就会看出英语口语的特点。例如：
① If you make every effort to reduce weight， you can do it. （written）
Make every effort to reduce weight， and you can do it. （spoken）
② At no time is anyone allowed to touch my personal computer. （written）
Anyone is allowed to touch my personal computer at no time. （spoken）
③ Absorbed in reading a novel， he didnt notice the teacher coming in. （written）
He was absorbed in reading a novel and didnt notice the teacher coming in. （spoken）
（2） 正式和非正式英语
正式场合使用的英语，即formal English，如报告、商业书信、法律法规等中用的语言。formal English比较正式、规范，有时甚至比较文气，口头上也可使用这种语言，多用在演讲、授课、正式报告等中。非正式场合中使用的英语，即informal English，指的是句式比较随便的英语，一般用于口头的谈话中，写信、甚至写文章也偶尔使用这种语言。例如：
① You—shut the door！
By order of the headmaster， these doors must be kept shut at all times. ② Shut up！
Visitors are politely requested to keep their voices down at all times.
③ Weve heard a lot of reports of financial fraud.
Weve been told about a large quantity of reports of financial fraud.
④ Crimes are on the rise.
There has been an increase in the incidence of crime.
很多常用的词汇、短语也有formal English和informal English之分，例如：
Formal English Informal English
a large amount / number of a lot of
admire look up to
child kid
solve handle
immediately right away
satisfy make...happy
prevent stop
tough hard
reply answer
draw your attention to speak to you about
look forward to wait for
take...into consideration think about
另外，正式英语和非正式英语在英语语法结构上也有差别，例如：
He is a person to whom I can turn for help. （formal）
He is a person （whom） I can turn to for help. （informal）
He considers it essential that we should do more reading every morning. （formal）
He considers it essential for us to do more reading every morning. （informal）
最后我们总结一下以上这几种不同类型的语言：
written English和formal English 经常用于以下场合：学术课本，大学论文，散文，商业信函，合同和报告等；informal written English常用在给朋友或家人写的书信、电子邮件和短信息中；formal spoken English则多用于正式的演讲或者在和陌生人交谈的时候；informal spoken English最常见于和亲人或朋友的谈话中。因此，在使用语言时一定要注意场合，语言要得体，以免弄出不必要的笑话和误解。
（作者：王祥国，江苏省平潮中学）
一篇文章，不管有多少段，其结构一般由引言 （introduction）、正文 （body） 和结尾 （conclusion） 三大部分组成。通常情况下每一部分往往又是由一个主题句而展开的。
1. 引言的常用呈现方法
1） 主题句法：开门见山，直接点出主题或亮出作者对问题的看法。
Deserts are found where there is little rainfall or where rain for a whole year falls in only a few weeks time. Ten inches of rain may be enough for many plants to survive if the rain is spread throughout the year. If it falls， within one or two months and the rest of the year is dry， those plants may die and a desert may form.
2） 引语法：引用名言或常用的习语、谚语等作为文章的开头。
“The measure of a mans real character is what he would do if he knew he would never be found out.” said Thomas Macaulay.
Some thirty years ago， I was studying in a public school in New York. One day， Mrs Nanette ONeill gave an arithmetic 26 to our class. When the papers were 27 she discovered that twelve boys had made exactly the 28 mistakes throughout the test.
3） 问题法：用一个问题来引出文章的主题。
If there is no difference in general intelligence between boys and girls， what can explain girls poor performance in science and mathematics？
It seems to be that their treatment at school is a direct cause. Mathematics and science are seen as subjects mainly for boys， and therefore， as girls become teenagers， they are less likely to take them. Interestingly， both boys and girls often regard the subjects for boys as more difficult.
又如：
We know the famous ones—the Thomas Edisons and the Alexander Graham Bells —but what about the less famous inventors？ What about the people who invented the traffic light and the windshield wiper（雨刮器）？Shouldnt we know who they are？ （2011江苏卷）
4） 对立法：先引出人们对某一问题的不同看法， 然后提出作者自己的看法。
Traditionally， a student leaving school at eighteen would go straight to university and study for three or four years before joining the world of work and beginning the slow climb up the career ladder. However， this year， like last year and the year before， thousands of young people will travel to every point of the compass and work on projects for up to a year before returning to the UK to enter university.
5） 数据法：用精确的数据来引出问题，引起人们注意。
For decades， Florida has been attracting older residents. In fact， according to the national population survey conducted in 2000， Florida was home to the largest population of people aged 65 and older. This group accounted for nearly 18% of the states population. This national average was only about 13%， so it is not surprising that Floridas Charlotte County is known as the oldest place in the USA. 2. 正文的结构
正文部分通常由一段或几段组成，主要是从不同侧面，不同角度对文章的主题展开讨论，各段所阐述或讨论的主题必须与文章的主题一致。正文部分与开始段落紧密相连，且围绕开始段落逐步、层层深入去展开。
一般正文部分的每一段由主题句、扩展句和结论句构成，并且扩展句往往有好几句。
例如：
Since fuel， oxygen and heat must be present in order for fire to continue， one or more of these things must be removed or reduced to extinguish a fire. （1） If the heat is reduced by cooling the material below a certain temperature， the fire goes out. The cooling method is the most common way to put out a fire. Water is the best cooling material because it is low in cost and easy to get.
（2） Another method of extinguishing fire is by cutting off the oxygen. This is usually done by covering the fire with sand， steam or some other things. A blanket may be used to cover a small fire.
（3） A third method is called separation， which includes removing the fuel， or material easy to burn from a fire， so that it can find no fuel.
（4） The method that is used to put out a fire depends upon the type of fire. Fires have been grouped in three classes. Fires in wood， paper， cloth and the like are called Class A fires. These materials usually help keep the fire on. Such fires can be stopped most readily by cooling with water.
文中划线部分为主题句，（1）、（2）、（3）句是扩展句，都是围绕主题句来展开的，第（4）句是结论句。
3. 结尾的呈现
结尾段用于概括全文的内容，往往含有最终主题句或者一个预测，或者与首段提到的例子互应。结尾段主要起总结概括全文的中心思想的作用。常用结尾段的写法有：
1） 结论性结尾：照应开头的引言，进一步强调文章的中心思想或作者的观点。
2） 建议性结尾：就文章中讨论的问题提出解决的方法或建议。
3） 引语性结尾：引用名人名言、谚语来总结全文，起到激励和教育的作用。
4） 反问式结尾：以问句的形式表明肯定的意义，具有明显的强调作用，以引起读者思考。
5） 转折性结尾：指出所讨论问题的消极影响或有可能产生的不良后果。
4. 高考阅读考查与篇章结构题
考查文章篇章结构类的阅读理解体裁一般为新闻报道、议论文、科普短文或说明文。考查角度通常为：①从段落的组织方式理解文章的基本结构；②按照写作手法来理解文章的篇章结构。
1） 常见的提问方式及选项
★常见的提问方式
This passage is organized in the pattern of .
The passage is mainly developed by .
The passage is organized in order of .
Which of the following shows the organization of the passage？
The author presents this passage by .
The first paragraph serves as a（n） .
The author develops the passage mainly by .
Which of the following shows the structure of the passage？
★常见的选项有：
① 名词（短语）类选项：time and events / time order / time； comparison and contrast； cause and effect； definition and classification； effectiveness / importance / complexity
② 动词ing形式类选项：analyzing causes / presenting a cause and analyzing its effects； making comparisons / comparing opinions from different fields / examining differences； following the time order / following the natural time order； providing typical examples ③ by+名词类选项：by classification， by comparison， by example， by process
2） 策略聚焦
英语文章经常使用主题段和主题句。主题段通常在文章的开头，简要概括文章的中心思想，然后是正文部分，最后为结论部分。主题句根据段落的写作手法可能在段落的开头，也可能出现在段落的中间或末尾。在做此类试题时，要快速浏览文章，学会把握文章的脉络，理解段落层次之间的关系，弄清作者的写作手法，如：通过举例、比较和对比、因果逻辑、时间、空间等手法来阐明主题观点。
3） 实战演练
Ever since they were first put on the market in the early 1990s， genetically modified （GM， 转基因） foods have been increasingly developed and marketed in many countries in the world， mainly on the basis of their promise to end the worldwide food crisis. But can GM technology solve world hunger problems？ Even if it would， is it the best solution？
Despite what it promises， GM technology actually has not increased the production potential of any crop. In fact， studies show that the most widely grown GM crop， GM soybeans， has suffered reduced productivity. For instance， a report that analyzed nearly two decades of research on major GM food crops shows that GM engineering has failed to significantly increase US crop production. （2011陕西卷）
The author develops the second paragraph mainly .
A. by classification B. by comparison
C. by example D. by process
二、语言文体
英语已成为国际语言，全世界很多国家都把英语列为第二外语，全球使用英语的人更是多达数十亿，不同地区的人在不同的场合使用的英语是不同的。一般来说，学英语时要注意以下两个方面的英语差异：
（1） 书面语和口语
英语中的书面语使用要求比较规范，结构比较严谨；而口语的句式则相对比较简短，结构比较松散，有时候中间还夹有各种插入语，如 do you suppose， do you believe， do you think， do you imagine等，有时一句话只说了半句就又转入另一句话，而且省略句比较多。有些时候还会夹杂些方言、俚语，这些因素都可能造成理解上的障碍。此外口语使用者在自然对话中多使用“and”和“but”等词来连接简单句，或者使用很多单一动词结构、主动语态，而很少使用复杂的并列句或从句结构和被动语态。而且，在一般的日常谈话中，说话者常使用直接引语和通俗的口语语言。而书面语中频繁出现的是主语、谓语、定语、状语、表语等复杂的从句结构。除此之外，书面语使用者常运用被动语态、过去完成时、间接引语、状语从句以及倒装句等手段来强调时间、空间上的跨度和问题的重要性。通过阅读一些科普性的书籍，报刊杂志上的专业论文等，我们就会发现文中一般都用书面语。反过来当我们阅读小说或是欣赏英美电影作品时，其中的人物对话多使用口语，就会看出英语口语的特点。例如：
① If you make every effort to reduce weight， you can do it. （written）
Make every effort to reduce weight， and you can do it. （spoken）
② At no time is anyone allowed to touch my personal computer. （written）
Anyone is allowed to touch my personal computer at no time. （spoken）
③ Absorbed in reading a novel， he didnt notice the teacher coming in. （written）
He was absorbed in reading a novel and didnt notice the teacher coming in. （spoken）
（2） 正式和非正式英语
正式场合使用的英语，即formal English，如报告、商业书信、法律法规等中用的语言。formal English比较正式、规范，有时甚至比较文气，口头上也可使用这种语言，多用在演讲、授课、正式报告等中。非正式场合中使用的英语，即informal English，指的是句式比较随便的英语，一般用于口头的谈话中，写信、甚至写文章也偶尔使用这种语言。例如：
① You—shut the door！
By order of the headmaster， these doors must be kept shut at all times. ② Shut up！
Visitors are politely requested to keep their voices down at all times.
③ Weve heard a lot of reports of financial fraud.
Weve been told about a large quantity of reports of financial fraud.
④ Crimes are on the rise.
There has been an increase in the incidence of crime.
很多常用的词汇、短语也有formal English和informal English之分，例如：
Formal English Informal English
a large amount / number of a lot of
admire look up to
child kid
solve handle
immediately right away
satisfy make...happy
prevent stop
tough hard
reply answer
draw your attention to speak to you about
look forward to wait for
take...into consideration think about
另外，正式英语和非正式英语在英语语法结构上也有差别，例如：
He is a person to whom I can turn for help. （formal）
He is a person （whom） I can turn to for help. （informal）
He considers it essential that we should do more reading every morning. （formal）
He considers it essential for us to do more reading every morning. （informal）
最后我们总结一下以上这几种不同类型的语言：
written English和formal English 经常用于以下场合：学术课本，大学论文，散文，商业信函，合同和报告等；informal written English常用在给朋友或家人写的书信、电子邮件和短信息中；formal spoken English则多用于正式的演讲或者在和陌生人交谈的时候；informal spoken English最常见于和亲人或朋友的谈话中。因此，在使用语言时一定要注意场合，语言要得体，以免弄出不必要的笑话和误解。
（作者：王祥国，江苏省平潮中学）