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【Abstract】Chinese martial art is not only a kind of sport； but also a part of traditional Chinese culture. Confucianism， Taoism， Buddhism and traditional Chinese medicine all have impact on the technical style of Chinese martial arts. In today’s intercultural communication， the translation of martial arts play an important role in introducing Chinese martial arts—— the Chinese traditional arts to the world， especially for the teaching of Chinese martial arts and helping peoples of different nations understand and study Chinese culture and exchange their cultures with ours. This paper discusses translation methods for Martial arts terms， and also provides the accepted criteria for it.
【Key words】martial arts terms； translation methods； intercultural communication.
1. Introduction
1.1 The Characteristics of Chinese Martial Arts
Chinese martial arts has its unique characteristics which are different from these of martial arts in other countries. Therefore， we need to have a clear picture of them.
Wushu （martial arts） originates from China but belongs to the world. Translation is a quite efficient way to introduce traditional Chinese martial arts to the world. Traditional Chinese martial arts embodies Chinese philosophical ideas， Chinese martial arts features and national culture. As we know， language is the vehicle of culture and at the same time， restricted by culture. To a large degree， each language keeps the cultural features of its own nation， unique thinking pattern and expressing habits. Chinese martial arts is based on Chinese culture as its theory and featured by attacking and defending skills. It is the unique oriental philosophical thought of martial arts and the national related culture that bring difficulties to Chinese-English translation of Chinese martial arts.
1.2 The Characteristic of Martial Arts Terms
The translators should not only follow the traditional criterion of “faithfulness， expressiveness and elegance” but also try to reach the care of “accuracy， fluency， flexibility and completeness”， namely accurate comprehension， fluid expression， flexible diction and integral form and content.
2. Translation Methods and Skills
2.1 Literal Translation
Literal translation can convey the exact deigned information in another language. In such a situation， translators are more likely to lose vigilance， thus making some slips or loss in translation. As a result， a translator is required not only to comprehend the meanings of the source text with accuracy but also to get a better literary foundation and a command of certain number of Chinese martial arts terms. For example， “手型” is translated as hand form； “按掌” ， as press palm； “八卦連环掌”， as eight-diagram； “推手”， as push hands； “腿法”， as leg position； “勾手”， as hook hand； “软械”， as soft weapon； “鞭杆”， as whip staff and “虚步”， as empty step etc. literal translation is applicable to the Chinese martial arts expressions containing idioms， but needs to be annotated for fear that readers might feel confused. That is literal translation with annotation. Of course， the annotation will distract and interrupt readers’ sequential understanding， so we had better reduce its use. Furthermore， Chinese martial arts contains a lot of traditional culture， such as： Philosophies and theories of Confucianism and Taoism. As the following examples：
（1）“鹰拳” is translated as Eagle style boxing， the word “style” manifest the meaning of “eagle’s movement” such as “flying” or “catching food” in Chinese.
（2）“八法” is translated as eight positions （hands form， expression in one’s eyes， posture， stepping position， spirits， breathe， strength and works）
2.2 Free Translation
The theories of Confucianism， Buddhism， Taoism and traditional Chinese medicine have an impact on Chinese martial arts technical styles. Chinese traditional culture as a mainstream culture influences greatly the mentality and behavior patterns of oriental people. Zeng Fanxin points out， “The Confucian concepts of ‘Wubei’ （the defense with Wushu）， the theory of ‘man is an integral part of nature’ and the harmony of ‘Yin and Yang’ have a major impact on the development and the formation of Chinese martial arts style and technology.”（Zeng Fanxin， 2006）
As is known to all， in western countries， most people have already accepted the translation that “taijiquan”.
On the basis of the information， “太極拳”should be translated as taijiquan instead of shadowboxing.
There are some other terms which neither be translated literally， nor by borrowing target language idiomatic expressions with corresponding meanings， but have to be treated in free translation. Free translation means translating content or essential information at the cost of image flexibly in relation to context. For example， “挂剑” is translated as row with sword； “南拳双蝶步”， as double fold step of southern style boxing； “倒卷肱”， as step back and whirl arms on both sides； “侧压腿”， as press leg side with ear to toes and “并步抱拳”， as bring feet together and draw fists. Still other example， in Chinese there are “sanfu” （the hottest days） and “sanjiu” （the coldest days）， however， we find no equivalents in English. So we have to translate the Chinese slogan “夏炼三伏，冬炼三九” as “Intensify your exercises during the hottest days of summer and during the coldest days in winter.” Such a translating method for Chinese martial arts is featured by profound implication in plain words， thus increasing the difficulty of translation. For example， a proverb that of “樣样精通，样样稀松” in Chinese martial arts， can be replaced the similar English expression of “A Jack of all trades is master of none.” Besides， another Chinese proverb， “冰冻三尺，非一日之寒”， can find its own corresponding expression in English， “Rome was not built in a day”.
2.3 New Word Formation
Sometimes， the terms for martial arts in Chinese lack ready corresponding words in English. The translators can express the meanings by using word-building method， such as： derivation， compounding， transformation and the mixed method. The precondition of word formation is that the words chosen agree with word-building method and collocating patterns and express the meaning of the source text clear enough to be understood at first glance by readership without any misinterpretation. For example， “三尖两刃刀”：Tri-point double-edge sword， here， the word： “tri-point” belongs to the word-building method derivation （prefix）； “double-edge” is a compound word.
2.4 Transliteration
The same things happen in English too. English words like “democracy” and “science” has been translated as “德先生” and “赛先生”， “tank”， “privacy”， “brunch”， “car pool”， “commuter”， and “splashdown” etc. have no any equivalents in Chinese. So we have to find a new method to solve the problem. For example， Chinese has adopted some exotic words from the western languages. Such as coffee is translated as “咖啡”； microphone， as “麦克风”； Broadway， as “百老汇”； and modern， as “摩登”. etc. On the other hand， English has also adopted many exotic words from other languages such as French， German， Latin， Italian and so on. And it has adopted Chinese words such as： “阴阳” is translated as YinYang； “豆腐”， as Tofu； “胡同”， as Hutong； “衙门”， as yamum/yamen； “舢板”， as sampan and so on. Among them there are also martial arts terms such as “武术” as WuShu， “功夫” as Kungfu， “太极” as Taiji and so on.
Besides， there are some other Chinese martial arts terms which have been adopted in English and accepted by foreigners. Now that people understand that meanings， we should follow the set-phrase principle to accept the established version. For example， “阴阳”is translated as yin yang； “功夫”， as kungfu； “劲力”， as power； “基本功”， as fundamentals and “手型”， as hand form. But the following Chinese words have to be translated， such as “武当拳”， as boxing of “Wudang”； “峨眉刺”， as “Emei” stab； “陈式太极”， as Chen style Taiji； “揽扎衣”， as lan zha yi and “气功”， as Qigong， etc. 2.5 Explanatory Translation
Proper translation is not word-for-word transformation， but a “bridge-builder” in the exchange of ideas. Therefore， it is suggested that explanative translation should be adopted. For example， “麒麟步” is translated as Qilin step （a kind of stepping position， which is like Qilin’s Footwork. Qilin is an animal in Chinese legend.） and “玉女穿梭”， as fair lady works at the shuttle （a kind of fist position），
2.6 Integral Translation
It refers to integral application of various translating methods. In accordance with contextual language setting， we apprehend the meaning of the source texts， make a flexible treatment of Chinese martial arts terms by adopting different translating methods for different situations.
2.6.1 Literal Translation Combined with Free Translation
Such literal and free translation is merited with both form and content. For example， “平舞花枪” is translated as wave-circle horizontal spear. Here， “wave-circle horizontal” uses free translation， while， “spear” is literal translation. “伏地后扫” is translated as sweep backward with hands support on ground. In this explanation， except “sweep” and “on ground” the rest is free translation.
2.6.2 Semi-Transliterating and Semi-Free Translation
When translating Chinese martial arts terms， we adopt semi-transliterated and semi-free translation method. Apart from the above-mentioned translating methods， there are also other methods such as： conversion， abstract translation， backward translation and reduction etc. Therefore， in Chinese-English translation for Chinese martial arts expressions， we must make a flexible application of various translating methods and skills to English translation with faithfulness and fluidity as a criterion in relation to regional， historic， academic and national features. For instance， “武術的风格和流派” is translated as wushu styles and school； “峨嵋刺”， as “Emei” daggers（stab）； “武当太乙五行拳”， as “taiyi” five form boxing of Wudang mountain； “杨家枪”， as yang-style； “地功拳”， as digong spear and “武艺”， as skill in Wushu.
2.7 Untranslatable Expressions
Being untranslatable means that TL itself lacks expressive ways required by ST content. （If larger gaps exist between the two cultural settings， one expression in one language will show a lack of the correspondent in another）. As we know， the cultural backgrounds in the two languages are entirely different， so there are no equivalents between the languages in many cases. Traditional Chinese martial arts has cultural characteristics of China， hence untranslatable expressions will inevitably occur in Chinese-English translation. 3. Principle of Translation
Translation is not simple transformation of words or mechanic linguistic conversion but transmission of “content” and “message”. Why Chinese martial arts is well accepted by the world stems from two factors of both culture and technology. Therefore， Chinese martial arts translation should follow the principle of Embodying National Culture .
It is said that， the more national it is the more cosmopolitan. Therefore， Chinese martial arts translation is required to represent and retain national cultural connotation and language style contained in Chinese martial arts. The cultural dimension of traditional Chinese martial arts covers various fields ranging from astronomy， geography， military， medicine， philosophy， physiology to studies of change. How well you learn the relevant culture will immediately affect the quality of Chinese martial arts translation. For example， the English book TAICHI for BEGINNERS translates the Chinese martial arts term “手揮琵琶” as “play guitar”. This translation has the connotation of traditional Chinese culture totally lost. While the correct translation should be “play the lutes”.
The complete loss of connotative taste in traditional Chinese culture means misinterpretation of culture. Some terms characteristic of Chinese martial arts theory have no equivalents， for example： “文有太极安天下，武有八卦定乾坤”， “阴阳互根” ， “武术”etc. These terms typify Chinese national features and whether literal translation or free translation， fails to represent ST content. In this case， it is advisable to use transliteration.
4. Conclusion
All in all， the comprehension of Chinese martial arts action and technique will affect the quality of translation. Before translating the Chinese martial arts terms， we must distinguish all relevant concepts， theories and facts. Unless consulting professional books and experts， we might have information lost or missed merely by translating its superficial meaning. If we have inadequate knowledge of professional skills， we certainly make mistakes so that Chinese martial arts translation might lose the original technical connotation and even mislead the renders.
References：
[1]AS Homby，Oxford Advanced Learners’ English-Chinese Dictionary Extended（fourth edition）[M].The Commercial Press
【Key words】martial arts terms； translation methods； intercultural communication.
1. Introduction
1.1 The Characteristics of Chinese Martial Arts
Chinese martial arts has its unique characteristics which are different from these of martial arts in other countries. Therefore， we need to have a clear picture of them.
Wushu （martial arts） originates from China but belongs to the world. Translation is a quite efficient way to introduce traditional Chinese martial arts to the world. Traditional Chinese martial arts embodies Chinese philosophical ideas， Chinese martial arts features and national culture. As we know， language is the vehicle of culture and at the same time， restricted by culture. To a large degree， each language keeps the cultural features of its own nation， unique thinking pattern and expressing habits. Chinese martial arts is based on Chinese culture as its theory and featured by attacking and defending skills. It is the unique oriental philosophical thought of martial arts and the national related culture that bring difficulties to Chinese-English translation of Chinese martial arts.
1.2 The Characteristic of Martial Arts Terms
The translators should not only follow the traditional criterion of “faithfulness， expressiveness and elegance” but also try to reach the care of “accuracy， fluency， flexibility and completeness”， namely accurate comprehension， fluid expression， flexible diction and integral form and content.
2. Translation Methods and Skills
2.1 Literal Translation
Literal translation can convey the exact deigned information in another language. In such a situation， translators are more likely to lose vigilance， thus making some slips or loss in translation. As a result， a translator is required not only to comprehend the meanings of the source text with accuracy but also to get a better literary foundation and a command of certain number of Chinese martial arts terms. For example， “手型” is translated as hand form； “按掌” ， as press palm； “八卦連环掌”， as eight-diagram； “推手”， as push hands； “腿法”， as leg position； “勾手”， as hook hand； “软械”， as soft weapon； “鞭杆”， as whip staff and “虚步”， as empty step etc. literal translation is applicable to the Chinese martial arts expressions containing idioms， but needs to be annotated for fear that readers might feel confused. That is literal translation with annotation. Of course， the annotation will distract and interrupt readers’ sequential understanding， so we had better reduce its use. Furthermore， Chinese martial arts contains a lot of traditional culture， such as： Philosophies and theories of Confucianism and Taoism. As the following examples：
（1）“鹰拳” is translated as Eagle style boxing， the word “style” manifest the meaning of “eagle’s movement” such as “flying” or “catching food” in Chinese.
（2）“八法” is translated as eight positions （hands form， expression in one’s eyes， posture， stepping position， spirits， breathe， strength and works）
2.2 Free Translation
The theories of Confucianism， Buddhism， Taoism and traditional Chinese medicine have an impact on Chinese martial arts technical styles. Chinese traditional culture as a mainstream culture influences greatly the mentality and behavior patterns of oriental people. Zeng Fanxin points out， “The Confucian concepts of ‘Wubei’ （the defense with Wushu）， the theory of ‘man is an integral part of nature’ and the harmony of ‘Yin and Yang’ have a major impact on the development and the formation of Chinese martial arts style and technology.”（Zeng Fanxin， 2006）
As is known to all， in western countries， most people have already accepted the translation that “taijiquan”.
On the basis of the information， “太極拳”should be translated as taijiquan instead of shadowboxing.
There are some other terms which neither be translated literally， nor by borrowing target language idiomatic expressions with corresponding meanings， but have to be treated in free translation. Free translation means translating content or essential information at the cost of image flexibly in relation to context. For example， “挂剑” is translated as row with sword； “南拳双蝶步”， as double fold step of southern style boxing； “倒卷肱”， as step back and whirl arms on both sides； “侧压腿”， as press leg side with ear to toes and “并步抱拳”， as bring feet together and draw fists. Still other example， in Chinese there are “sanfu” （the hottest days） and “sanjiu” （the coldest days）， however， we find no equivalents in English. So we have to translate the Chinese slogan “夏炼三伏，冬炼三九” as “Intensify your exercises during the hottest days of summer and during the coldest days in winter.” Such a translating method for Chinese martial arts is featured by profound implication in plain words， thus increasing the difficulty of translation. For example， a proverb that of “樣样精通，样样稀松” in Chinese martial arts， can be replaced the similar English expression of “A Jack of all trades is master of none.” Besides， another Chinese proverb， “冰冻三尺，非一日之寒”， can find its own corresponding expression in English， “Rome was not built in a day”.
2.3 New Word Formation
Sometimes， the terms for martial arts in Chinese lack ready corresponding words in English. The translators can express the meanings by using word-building method， such as： derivation， compounding， transformation and the mixed method. The precondition of word formation is that the words chosen agree with word-building method and collocating patterns and express the meaning of the source text clear enough to be understood at first glance by readership without any misinterpretation. For example， “三尖两刃刀”：Tri-point double-edge sword， here， the word： “tri-point” belongs to the word-building method derivation （prefix）； “double-edge” is a compound word.
2.4 Transliteration
The same things happen in English too. English words like “democracy” and “science” has been translated as “德先生” and “赛先生”， “tank”， “privacy”， “brunch”， “car pool”， “commuter”， and “splashdown” etc. have no any equivalents in Chinese. So we have to find a new method to solve the problem. For example， Chinese has adopted some exotic words from the western languages. Such as coffee is translated as “咖啡”； microphone， as “麦克风”； Broadway， as “百老汇”； and modern， as “摩登”. etc. On the other hand， English has also adopted many exotic words from other languages such as French， German， Latin， Italian and so on. And it has adopted Chinese words such as： “阴阳” is translated as YinYang； “豆腐”， as Tofu； “胡同”， as Hutong； “衙门”， as yamum/yamen； “舢板”， as sampan and so on. Among them there are also martial arts terms such as “武术” as WuShu， “功夫” as Kungfu， “太极” as Taiji and so on.
Besides， there are some other Chinese martial arts terms which have been adopted in English and accepted by foreigners. Now that people understand that meanings， we should follow the set-phrase principle to accept the established version. For example， “阴阳”is translated as yin yang； “功夫”， as kungfu； “劲力”， as power； “基本功”， as fundamentals and “手型”， as hand form. But the following Chinese words have to be translated， such as “武当拳”， as boxing of “Wudang”； “峨眉刺”， as “Emei” stab； “陈式太极”， as Chen style Taiji； “揽扎衣”， as lan zha yi and “气功”， as Qigong， etc. 2.5 Explanatory Translation
Proper translation is not word-for-word transformation， but a “bridge-builder” in the exchange of ideas. Therefore， it is suggested that explanative translation should be adopted. For example， “麒麟步” is translated as Qilin step （a kind of stepping position， which is like Qilin’s Footwork. Qilin is an animal in Chinese legend.） and “玉女穿梭”， as fair lady works at the shuttle （a kind of fist position），
2.6 Integral Translation
It refers to integral application of various translating methods. In accordance with contextual language setting， we apprehend the meaning of the source texts， make a flexible treatment of Chinese martial arts terms by adopting different translating methods for different situations.
2.6.1 Literal Translation Combined with Free Translation
Such literal and free translation is merited with both form and content. For example， “平舞花枪” is translated as wave-circle horizontal spear. Here， “wave-circle horizontal” uses free translation， while， “spear” is literal translation. “伏地后扫” is translated as sweep backward with hands support on ground. In this explanation， except “sweep” and “on ground” the rest is free translation.
2.6.2 Semi-Transliterating and Semi-Free Translation
When translating Chinese martial arts terms， we adopt semi-transliterated and semi-free translation method. Apart from the above-mentioned translating methods， there are also other methods such as： conversion， abstract translation， backward translation and reduction etc. Therefore， in Chinese-English translation for Chinese martial arts expressions， we must make a flexible application of various translating methods and skills to English translation with faithfulness and fluidity as a criterion in relation to regional， historic， academic and national features. For instance， “武術的风格和流派” is translated as wushu styles and school； “峨嵋刺”， as “Emei” daggers（stab）； “武当太乙五行拳”， as “taiyi” five form boxing of Wudang mountain； “杨家枪”， as yang-style； “地功拳”， as digong spear and “武艺”， as skill in Wushu.
2.7 Untranslatable Expressions
Being untranslatable means that TL itself lacks expressive ways required by ST content. （If larger gaps exist between the two cultural settings， one expression in one language will show a lack of the correspondent in another）. As we know， the cultural backgrounds in the two languages are entirely different， so there are no equivalents between the languages in many cases. Traditional Chinese martial arts has cultural characteristics of China， hence untranslatable expressions will inevitably occur in Chinese-English translation. 3. Principle of Translation
Translation is not simple transformation of words or mechanic linguistic conversion but transmission of “content” and “message”. Why Chinese martial arts is well accepted by the world stems from two factors of both culture and technology. Therefore， Chinese martial arts translation should follow the principle of Embodying National Culture .
It is said that， the more national it is the more cosmopolitan. Therefore， Chinese martial arts translation is required to represent and retain national cultural connotation and language style contained in Chinese martial arts. The cultural dimension of traditional Chinese martial arts covers various fields ranging from astronomy， geography， military， medicine， philosophy， physiology to studies of change. How well you learn the relevant culture will immediately affect the quality of Chinese martial arts translation. For example， the English book TAICHI for BEGINNERS translates the Chinese martial arts term “手揮琵琶” as “play guitar”. This translation has the connotation of traditional Chinese culture totally lost. While the correct translation should be “play the lutes”.
The complete loss of connotative taste in traditional Chinese culture means misinterpretation of culture. Some terms characteristic of Chinese martial arts theory have no equivalents， for example： “文有太极安天下，武有八卦定乾坤”， “阴阳互根” ， “武术”etc. These terms typify Chinese national features and whether literal translation or free translation， fails to represent ST content. In this case， it is advisable to use transliteration.
4. Conclusion
All in all， the comprehension of Chinese martial arts action and technique will affect the quality of translation. Before translating the Chinese martial arts terms， we must distinguish all relevant concepts， theories and facts. Unless consulting professional books and experts， we might have information lost or missed merely by translating its superficial meaning. If we have inadequate knowledge of professional skills， we certainly make mistakes so that Chinese martial arts translation might lose the original technical connotation and even mislead the renders.
References：
[1]AS Homby，Oxford Advanced Learners’ English-Chinese Dictionary Extended（fourth edition）[M].The Commercial Press