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[摘要] 肠杆菌科细菌是医院和社区的常见病原体,其对碳青霉烯类抗生素产生耐药后会产生严重的后果。本文主要对近年来耐碳青霉烯类肠杆菌主动筛查的相关文献进行归纳总结,以期为其未来的防控工作提供参考。
[关键词] 耐碳青霉烯类肠杆菌科;抗药性,微生物;感染控制;综述
[中图分类号] R378.2;R183
[文献标志码] A
[文章编号] 2096-5532(2021)05-0787-04
doi:10.11712/jms.2096-5532.2021.57.160
[开放科学(资源服务)标识码(OSID)]
[网络出版] https://kns.cnki.net/kcms/detail/37.1517.r.20210826.1200.009.html;2021-08-27 13:09:51
ADVANCES IN ACTIVE SCREENING OF CARBAPENEM-RESISTANT ENTEROBACTERIACEAE BACTERIA
WU Yijuan, LI Qingshu, QIN Xian, XIE Weifeng, QU Yan
(Dalian Medical University, Dalian 116044, China)
[ABSTRACT] Enterobacteriaceae bacteria are common pathogens in both hospital and community, and their resistance to carbapenem antibiotics will cause severe consequences. This paper mainly summarizes the relevant literature on active screening of carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae in recent years, in order to provide a reference for its control and prevention in the future.
[KEY WORDS] carbapenem-resistant enterobacteriaceae; drug resistance, microbial; infection control; review
耐碳青霉烯類肠杆菌(carbapenem-resistant enterobacteriaceae,CRE)是一类对碳青霉烯类抗菌药物耐药的病原体[1]。感染CRE的病人病死率明显高于非CRE感染者,且治疗成本更高[2]。肠杆菌科细菌表型筛选指南中指出,充分筛查CRE对病人至关重要,不仅有助于正确选择抗生素,还有助于选择合适的预防措施[3]。就当前研究现状而言,越来越多医学工作者对CRE主动筛查的相关研究产生了极大的兴趣,本文就CRE主动筛查的相关进展进行阐述。
1 CRE主动筛查的必要性
对于多重耐药革兰阴性病原体引起的感染性疾病,临床上偏向于运用碳青霉烯类抗生素[4]。然而,近年来许多临床医生担心的问题——CRE的检出率越来越高,已成为临床治疗的一大难题[5]。目前,世界大部分地区都发现了CRE,尤其在亚洲和南欧地区的患病率非常高[6]。据美国疾病预防控制中心报告,2001—2011年CRE的检出率从1%增加至4%[7]。我国2017—2018年细菌耐药监测报告显示,碳青霉烯类药物较前有更高的耐药率,其中肺炎克雷伯杆菌的耐药率全国平均为10.1%,较2017年上升了1.1%[8]。另有研究发现,CRE感染的病死率高达50%,且由于其治疗方案少、费用高,具有较高的潜在传播性,这会给病人、医院甚至社会带来极大的危害[9]。DICKSTEIND等[10]研究发现,住院病人存在CRE定植是发生该菌感染的独立危险因素。欧洲疾病预防控制中心认为,对CRE进行主动筛查并实施预防措施,不仅可以有效预防控制CRE的感染与传播,也能减少并发症、降低病死率[3,11]。
2 CRE主动筛查的对象及方法
2.1 筛查对象
主动筛查是控制CRE感染的基石,我们需要将重点放在CRE感染风险较高和易向其他高危人群传播的病人身上[12]。从临床角度来看, 所有可能有定植危险因素的病人应在入院时进行筛查,然后在住院期间每周进行1次筛查。严重免疫抑制、病情危重的病人应首先被纳入筛查计划。考虑到长期护理场所可能广泛传播CRE [13-14],建议所有入住的病人均进行筛查。另外有研究发现,与无症状携带者接触的病人会感染这些菌株并成为传播的第二来源,基于目前成本效益的考虑,不建议对CRE感染病人的家属及相关的医务人员进行主动筛查[15]。
2.2 CRE主动筛查的方法及频率
采集病人筛查标本后需要立即送入检验科进行检测,目前检测CRE的方法有很多,主要有Carba NP试验、改良的Hodge试验、改良的碳青霉烯灭活试验、免疫金标准试验、酶抑制剂增强试验和分子生物学方法等[16-19]。
对于CRE定植/感染高危的病区,病人均应在住院后进行主动筛查,至少连续2次肛周拭子筛查CRE阴性(间隔最少1周)才可判定无CRE定植并停止筛查。对于入院筛查阳性的病人,由于CRE定植时间为3~24个月不等[20],对住院时间低于1个月的病人应一直隔离至出院,不必再次进行筛查。对住院时间超过1个月的病人应1个月筛查1次,至筛查结果为阴性,可考虑停止隔离。此外,也有观点认为对入院筛查阴性的病人在条件许可的情况下,应综合采集多部位标本和增加筛查频率,宜每周或每两周进行1次筛查,甚至每周可以筛查2次,以便尽早发现CRE定植/感染并采取相应措施[21]。 3 预防CRE感染的措施
KARAMPATAKIS等[22]对住院病人进行主动监测并实施常规感染控制措施,结果表明,耐碳青霉烯类革兰阴性菌患病率及定植率明显降低,其中耐碳青霉烯肺炎克雷伯菌从每1 000个病床日19.6%的感染率下降至8.1%,说明积极监测、加强预防措施能够降低流行地区CRE的感染率。
3.1 接触预防隔离
耐药肠杆菌科细菌在人体内定植或感染可以持续存在数月,特别是伴有严重基础疾病、侵入性器械诊疗和反复使用抗菌药物的病人[23]。未行隔离措施的情况下,对首次确定CRE携带的病人在3个月内进行筛选时,仍有35%的检测阳性率[22]。长期护理医院中CRE既往携带者在最近1次阳性培养后至少90 d再次进行培养时,其检测阳性率为30%。最初直肠拭子培养阳性,即使经过2次或更多次阴性筛选培养,仍有15%左右的病人CRE检测阳性[24]。BEN等[25]的研究发现,接触预防隔离措施使耐碳青霉烯类肺炎克雷伯菌的临床感染率下降了4.7%,能够有效降低该菌定植或感染的院内传播率。
3.2 环境表面净化
严格遵循清洁和去污标准,不需要增加清洁频率或使用特殊类型的消毒剂就可以从环境中消除CRE,并且表面消毒可有效抵抗具有多重耐药性的革兰阴性菌[26]。肠杆菌科细菌的环境生存时间短,因而与环境传播风险的相关性较低[27]。最近的一项研究结果显示,在定植或感染了CRE的病人房间中,经常触摸的表面仅8.4%被污染,其中最常见的CRE培养阳性表面是马桶以及马桶周围的地板[28]。当用CRE、特别是大肠杆菌接种表面时,发现其存活率低(24 h<15%,48 h<5%,72 h无存活)。另一项研究发现,在法国疗养院的1 160个环境表面中,只有0.8%的病人感染或定植产超广谱β-内酰胺酶的肠杆菌[29]。CRE培养阳性病人所居住的房间每天至少清洁和消毒1次,并尽可能使用专用的单人或一次性设备。该类病人出院或转院后,应对房间及使用的物品进行彻底清洁和消毒,包括窗帘和床垫等。
3.3 控制使用有创设备
像导尿管、血管导管、气管导管等装置,通过提供病原体黏附表面和促进生物膜的形成导致感染进一步发展[30],CRE是设备相关感染的原因之一,尤其是与导管相关的尿路感染。最近,在南非暴发的产NDM-1肠杆菌科感染疾病中,置入导尿管或中心静脉导管的时间每增加1 d,分别会增加7%或8%的该菌感染率[31]。因此,对于必须行有创设备治疗的病人,必须严格遵循无菌原则并尽快移除导管是至关重要的[32]。
3.4 合理应用抗菌药物
第三代头孢菌素类、氨曲南等的大量使用促进了CRE的产生[33]。随着临床对抗菌药物的需求增多及广泛使用,CRE也日益增多,尤其是肺炎克雷伯杆菌和鲍曼不动杆菌,是临床医生面临的又一挑战。一项研究纳入了美国两家实施综合抗菌药物管理计划的重症监护室(ICU),发现多重耐药革兰阴性杆菌(包括铜绿假单胞菌、鲍曼不动杆菌及产ESBL的肠杆菌)引起院内感染率从37.4%降至8.5%[34]。澳大利亚墨尔本的一项研究显示,与实施抗菌药物管理计划前的记录比较,铜绿假单胞菌对亚胺培南的敏感性显著增加[35]。因而,为了实现各种抗菌药物的合理使用,需要严格掌握药物相关的临床适应证,并规范其在病儿及特殊人群如孕妇、重要脏器功能不全病人中的应用。
4 CRE定植/感染及去定植的效果
4.1 CRE定植与临床感染的关系
CRE定植发生在感染之前,因而当CRE检测阳性时,首先需要区分定植与感染。在排除病人送检标本污染的情况下,培养出CRE但无相关感染的临床表现时诊断为CRE定植。JESSICA等[36]收集有关CRE定植病人发展为临床感染的文献资料,纳入该研究病例累计感染率为16.5%,CRE的定植/感染延长了病人住院时间,总病死率约10%,其中由定植发展为感染的病人病死率更高(30%~75%)。
4.2 ICU病人CRE定植/感染的高危因素
ICU院内感染率明显高于其他普通病房[37]。韩国的一项研究显示,分离出多重耐药菌比未分离出细菌的病人发生CRE定植的风险高5倍左右,且易发生交叉感染;使用头孢菌素类的抗生素和碳青霉烯类抗生素≥15 d,CRE的定植风险分别增加3.84倍和2.67倍[38]。另外有研究显示,长期停留ICU也是发生CRE感染的高危因素[39],其原因包括住院时间长、感染部位不同、病人一般健康状况较差、伴随疾病多、处于相对免疫抑制状态等[40]。ICU病人留置导管的频率很高,为微生物侵入人体提供了途径,在使用和维护导管的过程中,医护人员需要频繁接触病人,易使病人受到院内病原体的定植和感染,此外,用于維护这些装置的设备可能成为病原体的储存库,导致其平行传播[41]。
4.3 对CRE定植病人进行去定植的效果评估
CRE定植不仅能够延长病人的总住院时间,还能够增加CRE感染率甚至病死率,对CRE定植的病人进行去定植能否改善病情及预后成为了新的研究方向。MACHUCA等[42]进行的一项CRE去定植治疗的随机对照试验表明,进行CRE去定植治疗的病人死亡率(18%)和全身感染率(15%)明显低于未接受去定植治疗的病人。另一类似的研究也显示,去定植治疗能降低CRE定植病人的全身感染率和病死率[38]。目前对于CRE去定植的相关研究较少,还需要继续探索。
5 小结与展望
碳青霉烯类抗生素是否产生耐药性与病人住院时间长短有关,对住院尤其是ICU病人进行CRE主动筛查将为全球关于抗菌药物耐药性的估计提供数据,并有助于预防、诊治CRE定植与感染。另外,存在CRE定植的病人发生该菌感染的总体风险尚不明确。因此,对于CRE的主动筛查、预防措施、定植与临床感染的关系等仍需要进一步的探索和研究,使得主动筛查CRE更具有临床意义。 [参考文献]
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(本文编辑 于国艺)
[关键词] 耐碳青霉烯类肠杆菌科;抗药性,微生物;感染控制;综述
[中图分类号] R378.2;R183
[文献标志码] A
[文章编号] 2096-5532(2021)05-0787-04
doi:10.11712/jms.2096-5532.2021.57.160
[开放科学(资源服务)标识码(OSID)]
[网络出版] https://kns.cnki.net/kcms/detail/37.1517.r.20210826.1200.009.html;2021-08-27 13:09:51
ADVANCES IN ACTIVE SCREENING OF CARBAPENEM-RESISTANT ENTEROBACTERIACEAE BACTERIA
WU Yijuan, LI Qingshu, QIN Xian, XIE Weifeng, QU Yan
(Dalian Medical University, Dalian 116044, China)
[ABSTRACT] Enterobacteriaceae bacteria are common pathogens in both hospital and community, and their resistance to carbapenem antibiotics will cause severe consequences. This paper mainly summarizes the relevant literature on active screening of carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae in recent years, in order to provide a reference for its control and prevention in the future.
[KEY WORDS] carbapenem-resistant enterobacteriaceae; drug resistance, microbial; infection control; review
耐碳青霉烯類肠杆菌(carbapenem-resistant enterobacteriaceae,CRE)是一类对碳青霉烯类抗菌药物耐药的病原体[1]。感染CRE的病人病死率明显高于非CRE感染者,且治疗成本更高[2]。肠杆菌科细菌表型筛选指南中指出,充分筛查CRE对病人至关重要,不仅有助于正确选择抗生素,还有助于选择合适的预防措施[3]。就当前研究现状而言,越来越多医学工作者对CRE主动筛查的相关研究产生了极大的兴趣,本文就CRE主动筛查的相关进展进行阐述。
1 CRE主动筛查的必要性
对于多重耐药革兰阴性病原体引起的感染性疾病,临床上偏向于运用碳青霉烯类抗生素[4]。然而,近年来许多临床医生担心的问题——CRE的检出率越来越高,已成为临床治疗的一大难题[5]。目前,世界大部分地区都发现了CRE,尤其在亚洲和南欧地区的患病率非常高[6]。据美国疾病预防控制中心报告,2001—2011年CRE的检出率从1%增加至4%[7]。我国2017—2018年细菌耐药监测报告显示,碳青霉烯类药物较前有更高的耐药率,其中肺炎克雷伯杆菌的耐药率全国平均为10.1%,较2017年上升了1.1%[8]。另有研究发现,CRE感染的病死率高达50%,且由于其治疗方案少、费用高,具有较高的潜在传播性,这会给病人、医院甚至社会带来极大的危害[9]。DICKSTEIND等[10]研究发现,住院病人存在CRE定植是发生该菌感染的独立危险因素。欧洲疾病预防控制中心认为,对CRE进行主动筛查并实施预防措施,不仅可以有效预防控制CRE的感染与传播,也能减少并发症、降低病死率[3,11]。
2 CRE主动筛查的对象及方法
2.1 筛查对象
主动筛查是控制CRE感染的基石,我们需要将重点放在CRE感染风险较高和易向其他高危人群传播的病人身上[12]。从临床角度来看, 所有可能有定植危险因素的病人应在入院时进行筛查,然后在住院期间每周进行1次筛查。严重免疫抑制、病情危重的病人应首先被纳入筛查计划。考虑到长期护理场所可能广泛传播CRE [13-14],建议所有入住的病人均进行筛查。另外有研究发现,与无症状携带者接触的病人会感染这些菌株并成为传播的第二来源,基于目前成本效益的考虑,不建议对CRE感染病人的家属及相关的医务人员进行主动筛查[15]。
2.2 CRE主动筛查的方法及频率
采集病人筛查标本后需要立即送入检验科进行检测,目前检测CRE的方法有很多,主要有Carba NP试验、改良的Hodge试验、改良的碳青霉烯灭活试验、免疫金标准试验、酶抑制剂增强试验和分子生物学方法等[16-19]。
对于CRE定植/感染高危的病区,病人均应在住院后进行主动筛查,至少连续2次肛周拭子筛查CRE阴性(间隔最少1周)才可判定无CRE定植并停止筛查。对于入院筛查阳性的病人,由于CRE定植时间为3~24个月不等[20],对住院时间低于1个月的病人应一直隔离至出院,不必再次进行筛查。对住院时间超过1个月的病人应1个月筛查1次,至筛查结果为阴性,可考虑停止隔离。此外,也有观点认为对入院筛查阴性的病人在条件许可的情况下,应综合采集多部位标本和增加筛查频率,宜每周或每两周进行1次筛查,甚至每周可以筛查2次,以便尽早发现CRE定植/感染并采取相应措施[21]。 3 预防CRE感染的措施
KARAMPATAKIS等[22]对住院病人进行主动监测并实施常规感染控制措施,结果表明,耐碳青霉烯类革兰阴性菌患病率及定植率明显降低,其中耐碳青霉烯肺炎克雷伯菌从每1 000个病床日19.6%的感染率下降至8.1%,说明积极监测、加强预防措施能够降低流行地区CRE的感染率。
3.1 接触预防隔离
耐药肠杆菌科细菌在人体内定植或感染可以持续存在数月,特别是伴有严重基础疾病、侵入性器械诊疗和反复使用抗菌药物的病人[23]。未行隔离措施的情况下,对首次确定CRE携带的病人在3个月内进行筛选时,仍有35%的检测阳性率[22]。长期护理医院中CRE既往携带者在最近1次阳性培养后至少90 d再次进行培养时,其检测阳性率为30%。最初直肠拭子培养阳性,即使经过2次或更多次阴性筛选培养,仍有15%左右的病人CRE检测阳性[24]。BEN等[25]的研究发现,接触预防隔离措施使耐碳青霉烯类肺炎克雷伯菌的临床感染率下降了4.7%,能够有效降低该菌定植或感染的院内传播率。
3.2 环境表面净化
严格遵循清洁和去污标准,不需要增加清洁频率或使用特殊类型的消毒剂就可以从环境中消除CRE,并且表面消毒可有效抵抗具有多重耐药性的革兰阴性菌[26]。肠杆菌科细菌的环境生存时间短,因而与环境传播风险的相关性较低[27]。最近的一项研究结果显示,在定植或感染了CRE的病人房间中,经常触摸的表面仅8.4%被污染,其中最常见的CRE培养阳性表面是马桶以及马桶周围的地板[28]。当用CRE、特别是大肠杆菌接种表面时,发现其存活率低(24 h<15%,48 h<5%,72 h无存活)。另一项研究发现,在法国疗养院的1 160个环境表面中,只有0.8%的病人感染或定植产超广谱β-内酰胺酶的肠杆菌[29]。CRE培养阳性病人所居住的房间每天至少清洁和消毒1次,并尽可能使用专用的单人或一次性设备。该类病人出院或转院后,应对房间及使用的物品进行彻底清洁和消毒,包括窗帘和床垫等。
3.3 控制使用有创设备
像导尿管、血管导管、气管导管等装置,通过提供病原体黏附表面和促进生物膜的形成导致感染进一步发展[30],CRE是设备相关感染的原因之一,尤其是与导管相关的尿路感染。最近,在南非暴发的产NDM-1肠杆菌科感染疾病中,置入导尿管或中心静脉导管的时间每增加1 d,分别会增加7%或8%的该菌感染率[31]。因此,对于必须行有创设备治疗的病人,必须严格遵循无菌原则并尽快移除导管是至关重要的[32]。
3.4 合理应用抗菌药物
第三代头孢菌素类、氨曲南等的大量使用促进了CRE的产生[33]。随着临床对抗菌药物的需求增多及广泛使用,CRE也日益增多,尤其是肺炎克雷伯杆菌和鲍曼不动杆菌,是临床医生面临的又一挑战。一项研究纳入了美国两家实施综合抗菌药物管理计划的重症监护室(ICU),发现多重耐药革兰阴性杆菌(包括铜绿假单胞菌、鲍曼不动杆菌及产ESBL的肠杆菌)引起院内感染率从37.4%降至8.5%[34]。澳大利亚墨尔本的一项研究显示,与实施抗菌药物管理计划前的记录比较,铜绿假单胞菌对亚胺培南的敏感性显著增加[35]。因而,为了实现各种抗菌药物的合理使用,需要严格掌握药物相关的临床适应证,并规范其在病儿及特殊人群如孕妇、重要脏器功能不全病人中的应用。
4 CRE定植/感染及去定植的效果
4.1 CRE定植与临床感染的关系
CRE定植发生在感染之前,因而当CRE检测阳性时,首先需要区分定植与感染。在排除病人送检标本污染的情况下,培养出CRE但无相关感染的临床表现时诊断为CRE定植。JESSICA等[36]收集有关CRE定植病人发展为临床感染的文献资料,纳入该研究病例累计感染率为16.5%,CRE的定植/感染延长了病人住院时间,总病死率约10%,其中由定植发展为感染的病人病死率更高(30%~75%)。
4.2 ICU病人CRE定植/感染的高危因素
ICU院内感染率明显高于其他普通病房[37]。韩国的一项研究显示,分离出多重耐药菌比未分离出细菌的病人发生CRE定植的风险高5倍左右,且易发生交叉感染;使用头孢菌素类的抗生素和碳青霉烯类抗生素≥15 d,CRE的定植风险分别增加3.84倍和2.67倍[38]。另外有研究显示,长期停留ICU也是发生CRE感染的高危因素[39],其原因包括住院时间长、感染部位不同、病人一般健康状况较差、伴随疾病多、处于相对免疫抑制状态等[40]。ICU病人留置导管的频率很高,为微生物侵入人体提供了途径,在使用和维护导管的过程中,医护人员需要频繁接触病人,易使病人受到院内病原体的定植和感染,此外,用于維护这些装置的设备可能成为病原体的储存库,导致其平行传播[41]。
4.3 对CRE定植病人进行去定植的效果评估
CRE定植不仅能够延长病人的总住院时间,还能够增加CRE感染率甚至病死率,对CRE定植的病人进行去定植能否改善病情及预后成为了新的研究方向。MACHUCA等[42]进行的一项CRE去定植治疗的随机对照试验表明,进行CRE去定植治疗的病人死亡率(18%)和全身感染率(15%)明显低于未接受去定植治疗的病人。另一类似的研究也显示,去定植治疗能降低CRE定植病人的全身感染率和病死率[38]。目前对于CRE去定植的相关研究较少,还需要继续探索。
5 小结与展望
碳青霉烯类抗生素是否产生耐药性与病人住院时间长短有关,对住院尤其是ICU病人进行CRE主动筛查将为全球关于抗菌药物耐药性的估计提供数据,并有助于预防、诊治CRE定植与感染。另外,存在CRE定植的病人发生该菌感染的总体风险尚不明确。因此,对于CRE的主动筛查、预防措施、定植与临床感染的关系等仍需要进一步的探索和研究,使得主动筛查CRE更具有临床意义。 [参考文献]
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