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Since the late 1970s， China has made great progress in large-scale poverty reduction in the process of its reform and opening-up， making considerable contribution to the realization of the UN Millennium Development Goals（MDGs）. However， the nation is still facing problems such as income inequality， comparatively lower poverty line， huge poor population， and lack of targeted poverty alleviation measures. In this context， the strategy of “precision poverty relief”needs to be taken further for hastening large-scale poverty reduction.
Progress in Poverty Alleviation
For more than three decades since it began the reform and opening-up policy， China has greatly reduced poverty while maintaining rapid economic growth. According to the World Bank’s poverty line of US$1 a day， the country cut the number of poor people by more than 700 million in the past 30 years. In 2000， the UN Millennium Summit passed the MDGs， setting a goal to halve the number of the poor from the 1990 figure. China was the first country to complete the goal. By 2002， it had reduced the percentage of the poor in rural areas to 30 percent from 60 percent in 1990. The figure was further lowered to 4.2 percent in 2014. During the period， China’s contribution to reducing the rate of global poverty exceeded 70 percent.
This large-scale poverty reduction is attributed to a combination of factors. First of all， rapid economic growth over decades has substantially increased incomes and consumptions， being decisive in large-scale poverty reduction. Growth in agriculture is particularly important for poverty alleviation. According to a research report released by the World Bank， growth in China’s agricultural sector is four times as effective in reducing poverty as growth in the secondary and tertiary industries. Secondly， targeted poverty alleviation effort has helped narrow the gap between different regions and accelerate economic and social development of poverty-stricken areas. Thirdly， China began to establish a social security system for rural areas in 2007. Measures such as guaranteed minimum income， the new-type rural cooperative medical care system and the rural pension insurance system have ensured provision of basic living and public services. Fourthly， inclusive rural policies have benefited vast sections of the impoverished in rural areas. In 2003， the country launched the “grain for green”campaign in poverty-stricken areas， and farmers who returned their farmland to forests and grasslands were paid with allowances. In 2006， agricultural tax was abolished， and a policy to provide general subsidies for agricultural development was implemented. From 2008， nine-year free compulsory education began nationwide for all children. Fifthly， the basic land system and land operation pattern ensure that the poor benefit from agricultural growth. The household contract responsibility system was adopted as the basic land system in rural areas， according to which rural lands are collectively owned， but farmers enjoy long-term use and management right of the land contracted. In the early 1980s， farmlands were distributed to farmers in a basically equal manner， so that impoverished households could also benefit from their farmland and agricultural development.
Challenges in Poverty Reduction
Despite great progresses in economic development and poverty reduction， it is undeniable that the income gap between the rich and the poor continues to expand. China’s Gini coefficient grew from 0.288 in 1981 to 0.469 in 2014. As poverty relief measures accelerated economic growth of poverty-stricken regions， income inequality in those regions was constantly increasing. During the implementation of the Outline for Development-oriented Poverty Reduction for China’s Rural Areas （2001-2010）， the ratio of households with lowest incomes to households with highest incomes in key counties for poverty alleviation dropped from 21.59 percent in 2002 to 17.38 percent in 2010. The more income a rural household earns， the faster its net income grows. From 2002 to 2010， the per capita net income of farmers with the lowest incomes increased at an annual rate of 11.1 percent， while that of farmers with the highest incomes increased at an annual rate of 14.1 percent， resulting in a further expansion of income gap. From 2002 to 2009， the annual income growth rates for poor rural households and average rural households in key counties for poverty alleviation were 2.75 percent and 11.76 percent – the former is 9 percentage points lower than the latter， while the national average stayed at 11.04 percent. The ratio of the income of poor households to that of the average households nationwide continued to fall – from one third in 2002 to one fifth in 2009.
The increase in income inequality is attributed to various reasons. First， the mainstay of China’s economic structure has shifted from agriculture that is labor-intensive to manufacturing and service industries， resulting in expansion of the income gap. Due to the fact that the country adopts a land system featuring equal distribution， the income distribution in its agricultural sector is comparatively equal. However， income inequality grows in the secondary and tertiary industries that are capital- and technologyintensive. Second， the population and labor migration between rural areas and urban areas also causes income inequality. Due to their comparatively lower educational level and comprehensive capacity and the shortage of capital and information， migrant workers from poverty-stricken rural areas find it more difficult to find jobs in cities than those from comparatively richer rural areas. This further widens the income gap. Third， although China’s development-oriented poverty relief effort has greatly improved the infrastructure， production， and living conditions in povertystricken areas， it remains hard for poor households to substantially increase their incomes by utilizing improved infrastructure as the rich households do. Finally， it is difficult for the poor to enjoy effective financial services， which impedes a rise in their incomes. Against the backdrop of growing income inequality， it has become harder to reduce the number of the poor through economic development and regional poverty alleviation. Therefore， it is increasingly important to directly help the poor through poverty relief policies that are more targeted. Precision Poverty Alleviation Strategy
In November 2013， President Xi Jinping first put forward the strategy of “precision poverty alleviation” during his visit to Xiangxi Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture in Hunan Province. So far， the strategy has remained a significant part of China’s fight against poverty.
The strategy aims to enhance the relevance and efficacy of poverty relief effort， so as to offset the drop in the effect of economic growth on poverty reduction. The key content of precision poverty alleviation is elimination of all the factors and obstacles that cause poverty through targeted assistance for the poor and enabling their self-development towards the goal of sustainable poverty reduction. Simply put， precision poverty alleviation targets every poor household and individual， instead of promoting regional development of poverty-stricken areas. Precision poverty alleviation includes precision in identification， assistance， management， and assessment. Precision identification means identifying poor households and population in a certain way and figuring out the key factors that cause the poverty of those households and population. That is the basis of precision poverty alleviation. Precision assistance means formulating and implementing targeted measures to help different poor households eliminate factors that cause their poverty and enable their self-development after guaranteeing their basic livelihood， thus achieving sustainable poverty reduction. Precision management means registering poor households and population in the records， and timely updating of details， such as family condition， reasons for poverty， and measures taken for assistance. The registration records of poor households and population shall be renewed every year according to changes in their livelihood condition to ensure that all of those in need get appropriate assistance. Precision assessment means， on the one hand， evaluating the results of poverty alleviation projects to ensure that poor households shake off poverty； and， on the other hand， assessing the poverty alleviation performance of local governments， so as to urge them to give priority to reducing poverty and improving people’s livelihood.
According to a survey conducted by the National Bureau of Statistics of China， the country had 70.17 million below the poverty line at the end of 2014. （It is estimated that the figure will be reduced to 60 million in early 2016）. The government has taken a series of measures to further innovate its poverty relief mechanism， so as to facilitate the implementation of its precision poverty alleviation strategy and ensure eradication of poverty by 2020. In terms of precision identification， China has identified 29.48 million poor households with a total population of 89.62 million since 2013. （Currently， the second round of poverty identification is underway， and although the findings are yet to be revealed， it is believed that the identified poor would be less in numbers）. Moreover， the country has registered all poor households and population and details about the families， available resources， income sources， and reasons of poverty in the national poverty alleviation information system. The government has taken a series of measures to push forward precision poverty alleviation. First， supporting a batch of poor households through industrial development and employment and solving their difficulties in relation to technology， capital， and marketing. Second， relocating 10 million of the poor in remote areas with harsh natural condition to comparatively more hospitable villages or small towns with a view to improving the environment and conditions for their development. Third， helping a batch of poor households reduce poverty through ecological compensation policies such as subsidies for those who returned their farmlands to forests. Fourth， helping a batch of poor households reduce poverty through strengthening education. The measures include developing preschool education in poverty-stricken areas， providing free high school or occupational school education and living allowances for students from impoverished families. This will not only reduce the education expenditure of poor households， but also help end inter-generational poverty. Finally， helping a batch of poor households through social security measures such as expanding the coverage of minimum living allowances， launching rural cooperative medical care system， and providing severe-disease medical insurance and assistance， and pension insurance. By 2020， China’s minimum living security system will lift all its citizens above the poverty line.
Moreover， China has reformed its poverty relief fund management system with the aim of strengthening the integration of funds. The right to manage and use poverty relief funds has been devolved to county-level governments. County or township governments are entitled to determine what kinds of poverty relief projects they can implement and how to implement according to their respective conditions， so as to meet the stratified and varied demands of poor households. Statistics released by the State Council Leading Group Office of Poverty Alleviation and Development show that the management right of 80 percent of the special funds for poverty alleviation has been devolved to the county level. In addition， poverty relief funds in various sectors are also required to be coordinated by county-level authorities， so as to achieve precision poverty alleviation. The central government and local province-level governments are mainly responsible for supervision， inspection， assessment and evaluation of poverty relief projects， especially guaranteeing the efficacy of those projects and preventing funds from misuse. China is also exploring cooperative patterns between local governments and financial institutions in comprehensive financial services such as guaranty， insurance， and credit. The country’s poverty alleviation campaign has a working mechanism featuring a clear division of duties， in which the central government is responsible for overall planning， province-level governments for coordination， and county-level governments for implementation. To strengthen community-level poverty alleviation capacity， governments at various levels have dispatched officials to act as first secretary and poverty relief team leaders in 128，000 poverty-stricken villages. Academic institutions， nongovernmental organizations， and ordinary citizens are also encouraged to participate in poverty relief effort by various means， such as establishing independent third-party poverty reduction appraisal mechanism. Chinese Experience in Poverty Relief
China’s success in large-scale poverty reduction over the past three decades， as well as its ongoing effort in precision poverty alleviation， are useful experience for developing countries. China’s successful experience can be summarized as follows：
First， sustained economic growth has been combined with development-centered poverty relief effort. For any country， economic growth is a necessary prerequisite for large-scale poverty reduction. Against a backdrop of increasing income inequality， precision poverty relief is indispensable to end poverty.
Second， the country has realized an organic integration of poverty alleviation and social security. Essentially， in order to achieve sustainable poverty reduction， a country needs to enhance the self-development ability of poverty-stricken areas and population through development-oriented poverty relief effort. Moreover， providing necessary social security policies will not only guarantee the poor’s basic livelihood， but also lay the foundation for developmentoriented poverty alleviation. If the poor lack basic living guarantee， it is impossible to achieve sustainable poverty reduction.
Third， government-led poverty relief effort should be incorporated with social mobilization. With primary liability for poverty alleviation， governments at various levels are responsible for formulating poverty relief strategies， providing and mobilizing relevant resources， and drafting and implementing relevant plans and policies. Poverty alleviation is a comprehensive， systemic project that involves various sectors and requires specialized knowledge and expertise. Therefore， broad participation of market entities， nongovernmental organizations， and ordinary citizens is vital to enhance the effectiveness of poverty relief efforts.
Finally， rational institutional arrangements are helpful for poverty reduction. China’s fair land distribution system has considerably magnified agriculture’s role in poverty reduction. Moreover， the popularization of free compulsory education and cooperative medical care helps the poor increase their human capital and enhance their capacity for development.
Progress in Poverty Alleviation
For more than three decades since it began the reform and opening-up policy， China has greatly reduced poverty while maintaining rapid economic growth. According to the World Bank’s poverty line of US$1 a day， the country cut the number of poor people by more than 700 million in the past 30 years. In 2000， the UN Millennium Summit passed the MDGs， setting a goal to halve the number of the poor from the 1990 figure. China was the first country to complete the goal. By 2002， it had reduced the percentage of the poor in rural areas to 30 percent from 60 percent in 1990. The figure was further lowered to 4.2 percent in 2014. During the period， China’s contribution to reducing the rate of global poverty exceeded 70 percent.
This large-scale poverty reduction is attributed to a combination of factors. First of all， rapid economic growth over decades has substantially increased incomes and consumptions， being decisive in large-scale poverty reduction. Growth in agriculture is particularly important for poverty alleviation. According to a research report released by the World Bank， growth in China’s agricultural sector is four times as effective in reducing poverty as growth in the secondary and tertiary industries. Secondly， targeted poverty alleviation effort has helped narrow the gap between different regions and accelerate economic and social development of poverty-stricken areas. Thirdly， China began to establish a social security system for rural areas in 2007. Measures such as guaranteed minimum income， the new-type rural cooperative medical care system and the rural pension insurance system have ensured provision of basic living and public services. Fourthly， inclusive rural policies have benefited vast sections of the impoverished in rural areas. In 2003， the country launched the “grain for green”campaign in poverty-stricken areas， and farmers who returned their farmland to forests and grasslands were paid with allowances. In 2006， agricultural tax was abolished， and a policy to provide general subsidies for agricultural development was implemented. From 2008， nine-year free compulsory education began nationwide for all children. Fifthly， the basic land system and land operation pattern ensure that the poor benefit from agricultural growth. The household contract responsibility system was adopted as the basic land system in rural areas， according to which rural lands are collectively owned， but farmers enjoy long-term use and management right of the land contracted. In the early 1980s， farmlands were distributed to farmers in a basically equal manner， so that impoverished households could also benefit from their farmland and agricultural development.
Challenges in Poverty Reduction
Despite great progresses in economic development and poverty reduction， it is undeniable that the income gap between the rich and the poor continues to expand. China’s Gini coefficient grew from 0.288 in 1981 to 0.469 in 2014. As poverty relief measures accelerated economic growth of poverty-stricken regions， income inequality in those regions was constantly increasing. During the implementation of the Outline for Development-oriented Poverty Reduction for China’s Rural Areas （2001-2010）， the ratio of households with lowest incomes to households with highest incomes in key counties for poverty alleviation dropped from 21.59 percent in 2002 to 17.38 percent in 2010. The more income a rural household earns， the faster its net income grows. From 2002 to 2010， the per capita net income of farmers with the lowest incomes increased at an annual rate of 11.1 percent， while that of farmers with the highest incomes increased at an annual rate of 14.1 percent， resulting in a further expansion of income gap. From 2002 to 2009， the annual income growth rates for poor rural households and average rural households in key counties for poverty alleviation were 2.75 percent and 11.76 percent – the former is 9 percentage points lower than the latter， while the national average stayed at 11.04 percent. The ratio of the income of poor households to that of the average households nationwide continued to fall – from one third in 2002 to one fifth in 2009.
The increase in income inequality is attributed to various reasons. First， the mainstay of China’s economic structure has shifted from agriculture that is labor-intensive to manufacturing and service industries， resulting in expansion of the income gap. Due to the fact that the country adopts a land system featuring equal distribution， the income distribution in its agricultural sector is comparatively equal. However， income inequality grows in the secondary and tertiary industries that are capital- and technologyintensive. Second， the population and labor migration between rural areas and urban areas also causes income inequality. Due to their comparatively lower educational level and comprehensive capacity and the shortage of capital and information， migrant workers from poverty-stricken rural areas find it more difficult to find jobs in cities than those from comparatively richer rural areas. This further widens the income gap. Third， although China’s development-oriented poverty relief effort has greatly improved the infrastructure， production， and living conditions in povertystricken areas， it remains hard for poor households to substantially increase their incomes by utilizing improved infrastructure as the rich households do. Finally， it is difficult for the poor to enjoy effective financial services， which impedes a rise in their incomes. Against the backdrop of growing income inequality， it has become harder to reduce the number of the poor through economic development and regional poverty alleviation. Therefore， it is increasingly important to directly help the poor through poverty relief policies that are more targeted. Precision Poverty Alleviation Strategy
In November 2013， President Xi Jinping first put forward the strategy of “precision poverty alleviation” during his visit to Xiangxi Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture in Hunan Province. So far， the strategy has remained a significant part of China’s fight against poverty.
The strategy aims to enhance the relevance and efficacy of poverty relief effort， so as to offset the drop in the effect of economic growth on poverty reduction. The key content of precision poverty alleviation is elimination of all the factors and obstacles that cause poverty through targeted assistance for the poor and enabling their self-development towards the goal of sustainable poverty reduction. Simply put， precision poverty alleviation targets every poor household and individual， instead of promoting regional development of poverty-stricken areas. Precision poverty alleviation includes precision in identification， assistance， management， and assessment. Precision identification means identifying poor households and population in a certain way and figuring out the key factors that cause the poverty of those households and population. That is the basis of precision poverty alleviation. Precision assistance means formulating and implementing targeted measures to help different poor households eliminate factors that cause their poverty and enable their self-development after guaranteeing their basic livelihood， thus achieving sustainable poverty reduction. Precision management means registering poor households and population in the records， and timely updating of details， such as family condition， reasons for poverty， and measures taken for assistance. The registration records of poor households and population shall be renewed every year according to changes in their livelihood condition to ensure that all of those in need get appropriate assistance. Precision assessment means， on the one hand， evaluating the results of poverty alleviation projects to ensure that poor households shake off poverty； and， on the other hand， assessing the poverty alleviation performance of local governments， so as to urge them to give priority to reducing poverty and improving people’s livelihood.
According to a survey conducted by the National Bureau of Statistics of China， the country had 70.17 million below the poverty line at the end of 2014. （It is estimated that the figure will be reduced to 60 million in early 2016）. The government has taken a series of measures to further innovate its poverty relief mechanism， so as to facilitate the implementation of its precision poverty alleviation strategy and ensure eradication of poverty by 2020. In terms of precision identification， China has identified 29.48 million poor households with a total population of 89.62 million since 2013. （Currently， the second round of poverty identification is underway， and although the findings are yet to be revealed， it is believed that the identified poor would be less in numbers）. Moreover， the country has registered all poor households and population and details about the families， available resources， income sources， and reasons of poverty in the national poverty alleviation information system. The government has taken a series of measures to push forward precision poverty alleviation. First， supporting a batch of poor households through industrial development and employment and solving their difficulties in relation to technology， capital， and marketing. Second， relocating 10 million of the poor in remote areas with harsh natural condition to comparatively more hospitable villages or small towns with a view to improving the environment and conditions for their development. Third， helping a batch of poor households reduce poverty through ecological compensation policies such as subsidies for those who returned their farmlands to forests. Fourth， helping a batch of poor households reduce poverty through strengthening education. The measures include developing preschool education in poverty-stricken areas， providing free high school or occupational school education and living allowances for students from impoverished families. This will not only reduce the education expenditure of poor households， but also help end inter-generational poverty. Finally， helping a batch of poor households through social security measures such as expanding the coverage of minimum living allowances， launching rural cooperative medical care system， and providing severe-disease medical insurance and assistance， and pension insurance. By 2020， China’s minimum living security system will lift all its citizens above the poverty line.
Moreover， China has reformed its poverty relief fund management system with the aim of strengthening the integration of funds. The right to manage and use poverty relief funds has been devolved to county-level governments. County or township governments are entitled to determine what kinds of poverty relief projects they can implement and how to implement according to their respective conditions， so as to meet the stratified and varied demands of poor households. Statistics released by the State Council Leading Group Office of Poverty Alleviation and Development show that the management right of 80 percent of the special funds for poverty alleviation has been devolved to the county level. In addition， poverty relief funds in various sectors are also required to be coordinated by county-level authorities， so as to achieve precision poverty alleviation. The central government and local province-level governments are mainly responsible for supervision， inspection， assessment and evaluation of poverty relief projects， especially guaranteeing the efficacy of those projects and preventing funds from misuse. China is also exploring cooperative patterns between local governments and financial institutions in comprehensive financial services such as guaranty， insurance， and credit. The country’s poverty alleviation campaign has a working mechanism featuring a clear division of duties， in which the central government is responsible for overall planning， province-level governments for coordination， and county-level governments for implementation. To strengthen community-level poverty alleviation capacity， governments at various levels have dispatched officials to act as first secretary and poverty relief team leaders in 128，000 poverty-stricken villages. Academic institutions， nongovernmental organizations， and ordinary citizens are also encouraged to participate in poverty relief effort by various means， such as establishing independent third-party poverty reduction appraisal mechanism. Chinese Experience in Poverty Relief
China’s success in large-scale poverty reduction over the past three decades， as well as its ongoing effort in precision poverty alleviation， are useful experience for developing countries. China’s successful experience can be summarized as follows：
First， sustained economic growth has been combined with development-centered poverty relief effort. For any country， economic growth is a necessary prerequisite for large-scale poverty reduction. Against a backdrop of increasing income inequality， precision poverty relief is indispensable to end poverty.
Second， the country has realized an organic integration of poverty alleviation and social security. Essentially， in order to achieve sustainable poverty reduction， a country needs to enhance the self-development ability of poverty-stricken areas and population through development-oriented poverty relief effort. Moreover， providing necessary social security policies will not only guarantee the poor’s basic livelihood， but also lay the foundation for developmentoriented poverty alleviation. If the poor lack basic living guarantee， it is impossible to achieve sustainable poverty reduction.
Third， government-led poverty relief effort should be incorporated with social mobilization. With primary liability for poverty alleviation， governments at various levels are responsible for formulating poverty relief strategies， providing and mobilizing relevant resources， and drafting and implementing relevant plans and policies. Poverty alleviation is a comprehensive， systemic project that involves various sectors and requires specialized knowledge and expertise. Therefore， broad participation of market entities， nongovernmental organizations， and ordinary citizens is vital to enhance the effectiveness of poverty relief efforts.
Finally， rational institutional arrangements are helpful for poverty reduction. China’s fair land distribution system has considerably magnified agriculture’s role in poverty reduction. Moreover， the popularization of free compulsory education and cooperative medical care helps the poor increase their human capital and enhance their capacity for development.