论文部分内容阅读
【Abstract】The Sino-United States （U.S.） relationship is one of the most important bilateral relationships in the world， as the U.S. is the most powerful state while China grows rapidly and ranks as the second largest economic entity. The puzzling relationship makes it hard to define the connection between the U.S. and China， whether they are friends or foes. The past 38 years since China and the U.S. first established diplomatic relations has witnessed ups and downs. The following paper will mainly introduce the two countries’ cooperation and tensions in trade， military and international organizations.
【Key words】Sino-U.S. relationship； Diplomacy； International relations
Section 1： Trade
a） Cooperation
The cooperation between the two states are frequent， especially regarding trade contacts. Up to 2016， China was the U.S.’ s second largest trading partner， the third biggest export market， and the largest source market of the U.S. imports. On the other hand， the U.S. was China’s second largest trading partner， its biggest export market， and fifth largest source of imports （Sun 46）. Additionally， in order to keep the U.S. interest rate low and help the exports of China’s products， “China purchased the U.S. government debt， reaching $1.185 trillion， which is 30% of the $3.948 trillion in Treasury bills， notes， and bonds held by foreign countries” （Amadeo， “U.S. Debt to China： How Much Does It Own？”）.
b） Tension
Although the bilateral commercial cooperation is increasingly closer， there are inevitable factors that cause economic tension between these two countries. The main reason of this is China’s incomplete transition to a free market economy after notably liberalizing its economy and trade within the last three decades. The U.S authorities also express concerns on China’s alleged widespread cyber economic espionage， the loose management of intellectual property rights and excessive protection of the government-funded industries （Morrison 439）.
The lack of strategic mutual trust is the key factor that restricts further development of the Sino-U.S. trade cooperation. The United States purposely designed the “Trans-Pacific Strategic Partnership Agreement” （TPP） excluding China from the U.S.-led Asia-Pacific region trade framework.
Section 2： Military
a） Cooperation
For a long time， the Sino-U.S. military relationship has been the most fragile part in this diplomatic relation. In November 2013， the Chinese and American troops first held the humanitarian joint military exercise for disaster reduction in Hawaii， which was the first time for Chinese armed forces to step on the U.S. continent. In 2014， Chinese President Xi Jinping arrived at Sunnylands， the Californian estate， to have a two-day summit with Barack Obama. During the summit， President Xi proposed constructing a new military relationship （Liu 18）. b） Tensions
1. Taiwan Crisis
The issue of Taiwan is high on the agenda in Sino-US relations. It is the significant aspect of the relationship which has the potential to turn the overall relationship into confrontation （Shepperd 44）. In 1949， the Kuomintang （KMT）， supported by the American government， was defeated in China’s Civil War by the communist party and withdrew to Taiwan. Since then， Taiwan was governed separately from the mainland. However， the U.S. continued to help Taiwan to win independence in military and economy. On January 1979， the U.S. government officially normalized the relationship with PRC， breaking relation with Taiwan. Nevertheless， in April in the same year， according to the Taiwan Relations Act（TRA） passed by the U.S. Congress， aiming at standardizing the relation between the U.S. and China， the U.S. government would provide Taiwan with weapons for self-defense in case PRC conquered Taiwan violently （Office of the Historian）. However， continuous actions taken by the U.S. government severely damaged Chinese national spirit， causing tension between the two countries. For example， the Obama administration sold 1.83 billion dollars of arms to Taiwan in 2015， just before the Taiwanese presidential election.
2. South China Sea Dispute
China， Vietnam， the Philippines， Taiwan， Malaysia and Brunei all have competing claims over territory in the South China Sea for centuries， but the tension has increased in recent years with super powers’ involvement. The U.S. also plays an important role in this issue， supporting the countries which have disputes over the South China Sea （“Why is the South China Sea contentious？”）. By intervening in this controversy， the U.S. shows its military power in this geopolitically important region， keeping its global leadership position and suppressing China.
Entering the 21st century， the fundamental interests of U.S. in Asia-Pacific region haven’t changed. In February 2009， the Obama administration announced that it would pursue access to the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation（TAC） with the founding members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations （ASEAN）， seen as the U.S.’s commitment and engagement in Southeast Asia （Manyin， Garcia and Morrison 3）.
3. Senkaku Islands Dispute
The territorial disputes of the Senkaku islands have been a high priority for the governments of Japan and China. The interference by the U.S.， a close ally of Japan， aggravated the disputes and caused the Sino-U.S. relationship to take a drastic turn for the worse. Barack Obama declared at the start of a tour of Asia， “The U.S. is duty-bound to come to Japan’s aid in the event of a conflict with China over a group of disputed islands in the East China Sea.” This tour aimed at reassuring Washington’s allies， facing threats to stability from North Korea and an increasingly assertive China （McCurry and Branigan， “Obama says US will defend Japan in island dispute with China”）. Section 3： International organizations
a） Cooperation
China and the U.S. are both members of Asian Development Bank （ADB）， the U.S. being the nonregional member， Association of Southeast Asian Nations （ASEAN）， both countries being dialogue partners， Group of Twenty （G20）， International Atomic Energy Agency （IAEA）， International Monetary Fund （IMF）， United Nations （UN）， World Trade Organization （WTO）. These two countries mainly cooperate within the framework of the United Nations （Central Intelligence Agency）.
b） Tension
However， tensions exist within multilateral development banks. Built by great powers， multilateral institutes aim at serving and benefiting the founders. The ADB has received much criticism since its establishment. As one of the nonregional member， the U.S. is considered to have long-term leadership and manipulation over ADB. Considering national benefits， the U.S largely ignore the demand of minor shareholders， for instance， humanitarian and development demand of Canada， Denmark and Norway. As the latecomer， China joined the ADB in 1986 and only has 5.44% voting right， Japan and the US having 12.76% voting right respectively. The unfair distribution of voting right has caused tension between the U.S. and China， meanwhile largely restraining the ADB from functioning effectively （Pang and He 8）.
Conclusion
Although the Sino-US relationship have once been troublesome， their contemporary relations remain stable without obvious hostility. During this period， the two countries have close ties in military and trade， working together in many international institutions to maintain world peace and prosperity. Facing opportunities and challenges， the China-U.S. relationship affects the wellbeing of many countries. This paper merely summarizes the interaction between these two countries in certain fields. Further research is required to make more accurate judgment about the contemporary relations of these two states.
References：
[1]Amadeo，Kimberly.“U.S.Debt to China：How Much Does It Own？” The Balance，22 Oct.2016，www.thebalance.com/u-s-debt-to-china-how-much-does-it-own-3306355.
[2]Central Intelligence Agency，“North America：United States.” The World Factbook，3 Nov.2016，www.cia.gov/library/publications/resources/the-world-factbook/geos/us.html.
[3]Liu，Feitao.“Sino - US Cooperation and Competition in the Context of New Power Relations.” Peace and Development，vol.5，2015，pp.12-24. [4]Manyin，M.，Garcia，M.，Morrison，Wayne.“U.S.Accession to the Association of Southeast Asian Nations’ Treaty of Amity and Cooperation.”Congressional Research Service，13 July 2009，Report no.R40583，www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/R40583.pdf.
[5]McCurry，Justin and Branigan，Tania.“Obama says US will defend Japan in island dispute with China.” The Guardian，24 April 2014，www.theguardian.com/world/2014/apr/24/obama-in-japan-backs-status- quo-in-island-dispute-with-china.
[6]Morrison，Wayne.China-US trade issues，Current Politics and Economics of Northern and Western Asia，vol.20，no.3，2011，pp.409-461.
[7]Office of the historian，United States Department of State，“The August 17，1982 U.S.-China Communiqué on Arms Sales to Taiwan.” history.state.gov/milestones/1981-1988/china-communique.
[8]Pang，Xun，and He，Yikun.“Power Versus Institution-How Does the Unite States Manipulate and Control Regional Development Banks.” World Economics and Politics，Vol.9，2015，pp.4-30.
[9]Shepperd，Taryn.Sino-US Relations and The Role of Emotion in State Action. Palgrave Macmillan，23 January，2013.
[10]Sun，Lipeng.“Sino-U.S.Trade Ties：Steady Progress in Cooperation.” China Today，1 July 2016，pp.46-49.
[11]“Why is the South China Sea contentious？” BBC news，12 July，2016，www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-13748349.
【Key words】Sino-U.S. relationship； Diplomacy； International relations
Section 1： Trade
a） Cooperation
The cooperation between the two states are frequent， especially regarding trade contacts. Up to 2016， China was the U.S.’ s second largest trading partner， the third biggest export market， and the largest source market of the U.S. imports. On the other hand， the U.S. was China’s second largest trading partner， its biggest export market， and fifth largest source of imports （Sun 46）. Additionally， in order to keep the U.S. interest rate low and help the exports of China’s products， “China purchased the U.S. government debt， reaching $1.185 trillion， which is 30% of the $3.948 trillion in Treasury bills， notes， and bonds held by foreign countries” （Amadeo， “U.S. Debt to China： How Much Does It Own？”）.
b） Tension
Although the bilateral commercial cooperation is increasingly closer， there are inevitable factors that cause economic tension between these two countries. The main reason of this is China’s incomplete transition to a free market economy after notably liberalizing its economy and trade within the last three decades. The U.S authorities also express concerns on China’s alleged widespread cyber economic espionage， the loose management of intellectual property rights and excessive protection of the government-funded industries （Morrison 439）.
The lack of strategic mutual trust is the key factor that restricts further development of the Sino-U.S. trade cooperation. The United States purposely designed the “Trans-Pacific Strategic Partnership Agreement” （TPP） excluding China from the U.S.-led Asia-Pacific region trade framework.
Section 2： Military
a） Cooperation
For a long time， the Sino-U.S. military relationship has been the most fragile part in this diplomatic relation. In November 2013， the Chinese and American troops first held the humanitarian joint military exercise for disaster reduction in Hawaii， which was the first time for Chinese armed forces to step on the U.S. continent. In 2014， Chinese President Xi Jinping arrived at Sunnylands， the Californian estate， to have a two-day summit with Barack Obama. During the summit， President Xi proposed constructing a new military relationship （Liu 18）. b） Tensions
1. Taiwan Crisis
The issue of Taiwan is high on the agenda in Sino-US relations. It is the significant aspect of the relationship which has the potential to turn the overall relationship into confrontation （Shepperd 44）. In 1949， the Kuomintang （KMT）， supported by the American government， was defeated in China’s Civil War by the communist party and withdrew to Taiwan. Since then， Taiwan was governed separately from the mainland. However， the U.S. continued to help Taiwan to win independence in military and economy. On January 1979， the U.S. government officially normalized the relationship with PRC， breaking relation with Taiwan. Nevertheless， in April in the same year， according to the Taiwan Relations Act（TRA） passed by the U.S. Congress， aiming at standardizing the relation between the U.S. and China， the U.S. government would provide Taiwan with weapons for self-defense in case PRC conquered Taiwan violently （Office of the Historian）. However， continuous actions taken by the U.S. government severely damaged Chinese national spirit， causing tension between the two countries. For example， the Obama administration sold 1.83 billion dollars of arms to Taiwan in 2015， just before the Taiwanese presidential election.
2. South China Sea Dispute
China， Vietnam， the Philippines， Taiwan， Malaysia and Brunei all have competing claims over territory in the South China Sea for centuries， but the tension has increased in recent years with super powers’ involvement. The U.S. also plays an important role in this issue， supporting the countries which have disputes over the South China Sea （“Why is the South China Sea contentious？”）. By intervening in this controversy， the U.S. shows its military power in this geopolitically important region， keeping its global leadership position and suppressing China.
Entering the 21st century， the fundamental interests of U.S. in Asia-Pacific region haven’t changed. In February 2009， the Obama administration announced that it would pursue access to the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation（TAC） with the founding members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations （ASEAN）， seen as the U.S.’s commitment and engagement in Southeast Asia （Manyin， Garcia and Morrison 3）.
3. Senkaku Islands Dispute
The territorial disputes of the Senkaku islands have been a high priority for the governments of Japan and China. The interference by the U.S.， a close ally of Japan， aggravated the disputes and caused the Sino-U.S. relationship to take a drastic turn for the worse. Barack Obama declared at the start of a tour of Asia， “The U.S. is duty-bound to come to Japan’s aid in the event of a conflict with China over a group of disputed islands in the East China Sea.” This tour aimed at reassuring Washington’s allies， facing threats to stability from North Korea and an increasingly assertive China （McCurry and Branigan， “Obama says US will defend Japan in island dispute with China”）. Section 3： International organizations
a） Cooperation
China and the U.S. are both members of Asian Development Bank （ADB）， the U.S. being the nonregional member， Association of Southeast Asian Nations （ASEAN）， both countries being dialogue partners， Group of Twenty （G20）， International Atomic Energy Agency （IAEA）， International Monetary Fund （IMF）， United Nations （UN）， World Trade Organization （WTO）. These two countries mainly cooperate within the framework of the United Nations （Central Intelligence Agency）.
b） Tension
However， tensions exist within multilateral development banks. Built by great powers， multilateral institutes aim at serving and benefiting the founders. The ADB has received much criticism since its establishment. As one of the nonregional member， the U.S. is considered to have long-term leadership and manipulation over ADB. Considering national benefits， the U.S largely ignore the demand of minor shareholders， for instance， humanitarian and development demand of Canada， Denmark and Norway. As the latecomer， China joined the ADB in 1986 and only has 5.44% voting right， Japan and the US having 12.76% voting right respectively. The unfair distribution of voting right has caused tension between the U.S. and China， meanwhile largely restraining the ADB from functioning effectively （Pang and He 8）.
Conclusion
Although the Sino-US relationship have once been troublesome， their contemporary relations remain stable without obvious hostility. During this period， the two countries have close ties in military and trade， working together in many international institutions to maintain world peace and prosperity. Facing opportunities and challenges， the China-U.S. relationship affects the wellbeing of many countries. This paper merely summarizes the interaction between these two countries in certain fields. Further research is required to make more accurate judgment about the contemporary relations of these two states.
References：
[1]Amadeo，Kimberly.“U.S.Debt to China：How Much Does It Own？” The Balance，22 Oct.2016，www.thebalance.com/u-s-debt-to-china-how-much-does-it-own-3306355.
[2]Central Intelligence Agency，“North America：United States.” The World Factbook，3 Nov.2016，www.cia.gov/library/publications/resources/the-world-factbook/geos/us.html.
[3]Liu，Feitao.“Sino - US Cooperation and Competition in the Context of New Power Relations.” Peace and Development，vol.5，2015，pp.12-24. [4]Manyin，M.，Garcia，M.，Morrison，Wayne.“U.S.Accession to the Association of Southeast Asian Nations’ Treaty of Amity and Cooperation.”Congressional Research Service，13 July 2009，Report no.R40583，www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/R40583.pdf.
[5]McCurry，Justin and Branigan，Tania.“Obama says US will defend Japan in island dispute with China.” The Guardian，24 April 2014，www.theguardian.com/world/2014/apr/24/obama-in-japan-backs-status- quo-in-island-dispute-with-china.
[6]Morrison，Wayne.China-US trade issues，Current Politics and Economics of Northern and Western Asia，vol.20，no.3，2011，pp.409-461.
[7]Office of the historian，United States Department of State，“The August 17，1982 U.S.-China Communiqué on Arms Sales to Taiwan.” history.state.gov/milestones/1981-1988/china-communique.
[8]Pang，Xun，and He，Yikun.“Power Versus Institution-How Does the Unite States Manipulate and Control Regional Development Banks.” World Economics and Politics，Vol.9，2015，pp.4-30.
[9]Shepperd，Taryn.Sino-US Relations and The Role of Emotion in State Action. Palgrave Macmillan，23 January，2013.
[10]Sun，Lipeng.“Sino-U.S.Trade Ties：Steady Progress in Cooperation.” China Today，1 July 2016，pp.46-49.
[11]“Why is the South China Sea contentious？” BBC news，12 July，2016，www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-13748349.