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Abstract： Guo Zizhang， following in Wang Yangming’s footsteps， was renowned for both his outstanding literary and military capacities. He did an excellent job during his tenure as Grand Coordinator of Guizhou. He investigated in person the areas inhabited by different ethnic groups there and gained insight into local development. Not only was Guo a veteran politician， he was also a thoughtful and productive writer. His politico-intellectual work embodied perfectly Wang Yangming’s deep influence in the Ming dynasty. Guo’s experiences in governing Guizhou merit attention.
Keywords： Guo Zizhang， Yangming followers， moral education， governance of Guizhou
Guo Zizhang 郭子章 （a.k.a. Qingluo 青螺， 1543–1618） was a Ming politician from Taihe County in Jiangxi. His master was Hu Zhengfu 胡正甫 （1517–1585）， one of Wang Yangming’s 王阳明 （1472–1528） second generation disciples. Influenced deeply by Wang’s teachings， Guo later became a renowned scholar of the Jiangxi Yangming school. Guo was a prolific writer. According to The History of Ming [明史]， he produced 25 books consisting of 264 juan， among which the most well-known was the Records of Guizhou [黔记]. Present-day scholars usually focus on Guo’s ideas on philosophy， geography， literature， and religion. Only a small number of them touch on Guo’s efforts to suppress rebellions， reform local politics， and promote moral education. This paper explores Guo’s governance of remote regions and the promotion of moral education during his tenure as Grand Coordinator of Guizhou， hoping that new light will be casted on the late Ming social changes.
Putting down the Rebellion [Refer to page 98 for Chinese. Similarly hereinafter]
Bozhou （today’s Zunyi of Guizhou） had been under the rule of the indigenous Yang clan since the reign of Emperor Taizong of Tang （r. 627–649）. In the mid- and late Ming， national finances were almost depleted due to the royal family’s extremely wasteful life and the imperial court’s high military expenditure on border defenses. The Ming government greatly increased taxes with a view to easing that financial burden. The Ming government in the Yongle reign （1403–1424） started to collect many precious woods from the southwest， where Guizhou was situated. This had the exacerbated the contradiction between central power and localities. Yang Yinglong 楊应龙 （d. 1600）， the chieftain of Bozhou’s ruling clan， staged a rebellion under these circumstances.
At this critical moment， the Ming government appointed Guo to put down Yang’s rebellion. Guo and Song Xingzu 宋兴祖 （fl. 1583–1601） penned a memorial to the throne， earnestly urging the imperial court to stabilize the army by paying the soldiers immediately. Moreover， they suggested the central government mobilize both the regular army and local militia. In doing so， the two officials believed， the Ming’s military capability would be substantially increased. Half a year later， the army in Guizhou was well-prepared and well-equipped. Most importantly， local society became increasingly stable. In the mid-March of 1600， war against the rebels broke out. It lasted for almost three months. Both sides fought fiercely in Wujiangguan， Loushanguan， Baishikou， and Hailongtun. Putting down Yang’s rebellion was not an easy job due to the complicated climatic and geographical conditions and unexpected changes in strategy and the military deployment. Finally， Guo crushed the rebels in the Hailongtun campaign. Yang Yinglong， the leading rebel， was forced to hang himself and his son was captured by the Ming army. The rebellion was successfully put down. Pleased by this， Emperor Wanli （r. 1572–1620） appointed Guo the position of vice minister of war. The local residents thought highly of Guo and even built seven shrines dedicated to him.
Reforming Regional Politics [100]
The Bozhou rebellion was the largest southwestern insurgency against the central authorities， and posed a grave threat to the late Ming. After successfully putting down the rebellion， Guo started to restore social order in Guizhou and eliminate the rebellious local chieftains’ influence. It was an urgent mission. Guo suggested the imperial court implement the policy of gaitu guiliu 改土歸流 （changing border areas from the tribal chieftainship system to the standard district administration system）.
Convinced by Guo’s suggestion， the emperor issued an edict respecting the gaitu guiliu policy. According to this edict， （1） the regions under the rule of indigenous chieftains were divided into northern and southern parts; （2） the five clan heads below the Bozhou chieftain were replaced with imperial officials; and （3） Guo， then Grand Coordinator of Guizhou， was put in charge of the military and administrative affairs involving four prefectures in the south of Sichuan and Huguang （today’s Hunan and Hubei）， holding the posts of Supreme Commander of Sichuan， Huguang， and Guizhou， and Grand Coordinator of Sichuan.
The emperor’s edict indicated that there were three dramatic changes involving Guizhou in the wake of the crackdown of the Bozhou rebellion. To be specific， the conventional system of indigenous chieftains， the administrative division and levels were all changed. First， the areas under Guizhou’s jurisdiction were all arranged to be interconnected. This endeavor was conducive not only to the improvement of Guizhou’s administrative and defensive systems but also to the Ming’s border defense mission in the southwest. Second， transformation from the tribal chieftainship system to the standard district administration system made tax collection more efficient. The new bureaucratic system laid a solid foundation for Guizhou’s socio-economic rehabilitation. Third， administrative costs were reduced and administrative efficiency improved due to the overhaul of existing agencies. In a word， in comparison with the old Guizhou under the rule of local chieftains， the new Guizhou had a bright， new look. Improving People’s Lives [102]
To a great extent， the gaitu guiliu policy was an overhaul of Guizhou’s existing administrative system. It laid the foundation for the implementation of new policies. Guo， as Grand Coordinator of Guizhou， made great efforts to strengthen defenses， select capable officials， better transport conditions， and improve social customs. Remarkable social progress was made in Guizhou as a result of Guo’s efforts.
Reinforcing Cities and Stabilizing Society [102]
The reason why southwest suffered instability for quite a long time lay in the contradictions between local chieftains and the imperial court. The implementation of gaitu guiliu policy solved this problem. The development of this region， for Guizhou and Yunnan in particular， could thus be unleashed. In order to achieve long-term stability， Guo made great efforts to reinforce city defenses. Not only did his work benefit the crackdown on rebellions， it also contributed to the Ming’s border defenses by improving the quality of military officers and soldiers in general. Take Longli for example. Longli， was a city seriously damaged in the Bozhou rebellion. When the rebels were wiped out， Guo immediately repaired the broken city walls and made Longli sounder and safer.
Building Bridges and Repairing Roads in Guizhou [103]
Poor transportation infrastructure seriously impeded Guizhou’s growth. Local people’s life and communications with central powers were both affected badly. In view of this， Guo took practical measures to improve the regional transport systems.
One of these was that Guo built bridges. After investigating the situation in Chong’an， Maha， and Panjiang， all of which were renowned for their steep cliffs， deep water and immediate drowning of travelers， Guo built three floating bridges as advised by the indigenous people. The improved transport was effective in the alleviation of poverty.
In addition， Guo cut through mountains and built roads. Take Meitan and Yuqing for example. These two regions were incorporated into Guizhou after the Bozhou rebellion. Guo visited these places in person， finding that the roads in Meitan were too bad for carts to run along. As a result， he ordered the local authorities to repair the roads. In consequence of his actions， there were endless streams of horses and carriages where once there was only difficult travel.
Promoting Moral Education [103]
The Ming’s founding emperor Zhu Yuanzhang 朱元璋 （r. 1368–1398） discussed the issue of good governance. His discussion reads， When it comes to the governance of all under Heaven， what is the most important and what is the less—and least—important？ Our empire is just founded. What we need most is food and clothing. Furthermore， teaching the people to be morally good and correct is desperately needed. Given food and clothing， the people can live a stable life. Then， they can be instructed to act in accordance with moral standards. Well-educated and well-disciplined people will improve social customs. The key of living a stable life lies in agriculture. Successful moral education depends on schools. When many schools are set up， morally superior persons must devote themselves to perfecting their virtues.
Guo followed the emperor’s words in his moral education endeavors in Guizhou.
Guo turned his attentions to the farmland used exclusively by schools. This laid the material foundation of his education mission. Guo enthusiastically advocated the idea that moral education should play quite a significant role in the general educational system. This was directly inspired by Wang Yangming’s theory of extending intuitive knowledge. Guo held that morally superior persons should be venerated in generation after generation. These predecessors， whose own education was based on morality， were worthy of the shrines dedicated to them. Under their influence， the people were taught to be moral and take intuitive knowledge as the criteria of their behaviors. Emulating Wang Yangming’s formulation of the Community Convention of South Jiangxi [贛南乡约]， Guo produced the practical text Middle Guizhou’s Pact against Rebels [黔中弥盗条约]. This pact played a great role in the work of keeping this region in order.
Guo spent an entire decade （1599–1609） putting an end to the chaos plaguing Guizhou and leading this remote region into stability and prosperity. The rehabilitation of Guizhou demonstrated convincingly Guo’s outstanding political abilities.
Concluding Remarks [105]
Guo’s works， such as the Records of Guizhou， give us a glimpse of his ideas and practice of governance and the role he played in the rehabilitation of Guizhou. Putting down the Bozhou rebellion， Guo offered a solution to the long-standing contradiction between the southwestern indigenous chieftains and the central authorities. Most importantly， his successful military endeavors put an end to Guizhou’s instability and restored peace and harmony there. Guo went further， improving local people’s livelihood by building bridges and roads and promoting moral education by financing schools with farmland. Guo’s socio-politico endeavors did help Guizhou rehabilitate itself and exerted deep and far-reaching influence on the governance of Guizhou. After his death， Guo’s image was enshrined in the hall dedicated to the renowned officials who had worked in Guizhou. Local residents offered seasonal sacrifices to this brilliant governor. Guo’s observation of Guizhou and political practice were indeed successful， and to the present day people can draw on them for reference.
Translated by Chi Zhen
Keywords： Guo Zizhang， Yangming followers， moral education， governance of Guizhou
Guo Zizhang 郭子章 （a.k.a. Qingluo 青螺， 1543–1618） was a Ming politician from Taihe County in Jiangxi. His master was Hu Zhengfu 胡正甫 （1517–1585）， one of Wang Yangming’s 王阳明 （1472–1528） second generation disciples. Influenced deeply by Wang’s teachings， Guo later became a renowned scholar of the Jiangxi Yangming school. Guo was a prolific writer. According to The History of Ming [明史]， he produced 25 books consisting of 264 juan， among which the most well-known was the Records of Guizhou [黔记]. Present-day scholars usually focus on Guo’s ideas on philosophy， geography， literature， and religion. Only a small number of them touch on Guo’s efforts to suppress rebellions， reform local politics， and promote moral education. This paper explores Guo’s governance of remote regions and the promotion of moral education during his tenure as Grand Coordinator of Guizhou， hoping that new light will be casted on the late Ming social changes.
Putting down the Rebellion [Refer to page 98 for Chinese. Similarly hereinafter]
Bozhou （today’s Zunyi of Guizhou） had been under the rule of the indigenous Yang clan since the reign of Emperor Taizong of Tang （r. 627–649）. In the mid- and late Ming， national finances were almost depleted due to the royal family’s extremely wasteful life and the imperial court’s high military expenditure on border defenses. The Ming government greatly increased taxes with a view to easing that financial burden. The Ming government in the Yongle reign （1403–1424） started to collect many precious woods from the southwest， where Guizhou was situated. This had the exacerbated the contradiction between central power and localities. Yang Yinglong 楊应龙 （d. 1600）， the chieftain of Bozhou’s ruling clan， staged a rebellion under these circumstances.
At this critical moment， the Ming government appointed Guo to put down Yang’s rebellion. Guo and Song Xingzu 宋兴祖 （fl. 1583–1601） penned a memorial to the throne， earnestly urging the imperial court to stabilize the army by paying the soldiers immediately. Moreover， they suggested the central government mobilize both the regular army and local militia. In doing so， the two officials believed， the Ming’s military capability would be substantially increased. Half a year later， the army in Guizhou was well-prepared and well-equipped. Most importantly， local society became increasingly stable. In the mid-March of 1600， war against the rebels broke out. It lasted for almost three months. Both sides fought fiercely in Wujiangguan， Loushanguan， Baishikou， and Hailongtun. Putting down Yang’s rebellion was not an easy job due to the complicated climatic and geographical conditions and unexpected changes in strategy and the military deployment. Finally， Guo crushed the rebels in the Hailongtun campaign. Yang Yinglong， the leading rebel， was forced to hang himself and his son was captured by the Ming army. The rebellion was successfully put down. Pleased by this， Emperor Wanli （r. 1572–1620） appointed Guo the position of vice minister of war. The local residents thought highly of Guo and even built seven shrines dedicated to him.
Reforming Regional Politics [100]
The Bozhou rebellion was the largest southwestern insurgency against the central authorities， and posed a grave threat to the late Ming. After successfully putting down the rebellion， Guo started to restore social order in Guizhou and eliminate the rebellious local chieftains’ influence. It was an urgent mission. Guo suggested the imperial court implement the policy of gaitu guiliu 改土歸流 （changing border areas from the tribal chieftainship system to the standard district administration system）.
Convinced by Guo’s suggestion， the emperor issued an edict respecting the gaitu guiliu policy. According to this edict， （1） the regions under the rule of indigenous chieftains were divided into northern and southern parts; （2） the five clan heads below the Bozhou chieftain were replaced with imperial officials; and （3） Guo， then Grand Coordinator of Guizhou， was put in charge of the military and administrative affairs involving four prefectures in the south of Sichuan and Huguang （today’s Hunan and Hubei）， holding the posts of Supreme Commander of Sichuan， Huguang， and Guizhou， and Grand Coordinator of Sichuan.
The emperor’s edict indicated that there were three dramatic changes involving Guizhou in the wake of the crackdown of the Bozhou rebellion. To be specific， the conventional system of indigenous chieftains， the administrative division and levels were all changed. First， the areas under Guizhou’s jurisdiction were all arranged to be interconnected. This endeavor was conducive not only to the improvement of Guizhou’s administrative and defensive systems but also to the Ming’s border defense mission in the southwest. Second， transformation from the tribal chieftainship system to the standard district administration system made tax collection more efficient. The new bureaucratic system laid a solid foundation for Guizhou’s socio-economic rehabilitation. Third， administrative costs were reduced and administrative efficiency improved due to the overhaul of existing agencies. In a word， in comparison with the old Guizhou under the rule of local chieftains， the new Guizhou had a bright， new look. Improving People’s Lives [102]
To a great extent， the gaitu guiliu policy was an overhaul of Guizhou’s existing administrative system. It laid the foundation for the implementation of new policies. Guo， as Grand Coordinator of Guizhou， made great efforts to strengthen defenses， select capable officials， better transport conditions， and improve social customs. Remarkable social progress was made in Guizhou as a result of Guo’s efforts.
Reinforcing Cities and Stabilizing Society [102]
The reason why southwest suffered instability for quite a long time lay in the contradictions between local chieftains and the imperial court. The implementation of gaitu guiliu policy solved this problem. The development of this region， for Guizhou and Yunnan in particular， could thus be unleashed. In order to achieve long-term stability， Guo made great efforts to reinforce city defenses. Not only did his work benefit the crackdown on rebellions， it also contributed to the Ming’s border defenses by improving the quality of military officers and soldiers in general. Take Longli for example. Longli， was a city seriously damaged in the Bozhou rebellion. When the rebels were wiped out， Guo immediately repaired the broken city walls and made Longli sounder and safer.
Building Bridges and Repairing Roads in Guizhou [103]
Poor transportation infrastructure seriously impeded Guizhou’s growth. Local people’s life and communications with central powers were both affected badly. In view of this， Guo took practical measures to improve the regional transport systems.
One of these was that Guo built bridges. After investigating the situation in Chong’an， Maha， and Panjiang， all of which were renowned for their steep cliffs， deep water and immediate drowning of travelers， Guo built three floating bridges as advised by the indigenous people. The improved transport was effective in the alleviation of poverty.
In addition， Guo cut through mountains and built roads. Take Meitan and Yuqing for example. These two regions were incorporated into Guizhou after the Bozhou rebellion. Guo visited these places in person， finding that the roads in Meitan were too bad for carts to run along. As a result， he ordered the local authorities to repair the roads. In consequence of his actions， there were endless streams of horses and carriages where once there was only difficult travel.
Promoting Moral Education [103]
The Ming’s founding emperor Zhu Yuanzhang 朱元璋 （r. 1368–1398） discussed the issue of good governance. His discussion reads， When it comes to the governance of all under Heaven， what is the most important and what is the less—and least—important？ Our empire is just founded. What we need most is food and clothing. Furthermore， teaching the people to be morally good and correct is desperately needed. Given food and clothing， the people can live a stable life. Then， they can be instructed to act in accordance with moral standards. Well-educated and well-disciplined people will improve social customs. The key of living a stable life lies in agriculture. Successful moral education depends on schools. When many schools are set up， morally superior persons must devote themselves to perfecting their virtues.
Guo followed the emperor’s words in his moral education endeavors in Guizhou.
Guo turned his attentions to the farmland used exclusively by schools. This laid the material foundation of his education mission. Guo enthusiastically advocated the idea that moral education should play quite a significant role in the general educational system. This was directly inspired by Wang Yangming’s theory of extending intuitive knowledge. Guo held that morally superior persons should be venerated in generation after generation. These predecessors， whose own education was based on morality， were worthy of the shrines dedicated to them. Under their influence， the people were taught to be moral and take intuitive knowledge as the criteria of their behaviors. Emulating Wang Yangming’s formulation of the Community Convention of South Jiangxi [贛南乡约]， Guo produced the practical text Middle Guizhou’s Pact against Rebels [黔中弥盗条约]. This pact played a great role in the work of keeping this region in order.
Guo spent an entire decade （1599–1609） putting an end to the chaos plaguing Guizhou and leading this remote region into stability and prosperity. The rehabilitation of Guizhou demonstrated convincingly Guo’s outstanding political abilities.
Concluding Remarks [105]
Guo’s works， such as the Records of Guizhou， give us a glimpse of his ideas and practice of governance and the role he played in the rehabilitation of Guizhou. Putting down the Bozhou rebellion， Guo offered a solution to the long-standing contradiction between the southwestern indigenous chieftains and the central authorities. Most importantly， his successful military endeavors put an end to Guizhou’s instability and restored peace and harmony there. Guo went further， improving local people’s livelihood by building bridges and roads and promoting moral education by financing schools with farmland. Guo’s socio-politico endeavors did help Guizhou rehabilitate itself and exerted deep and far-reaching influence on the governance of Guizhou. After his death， Guo’s image was enshrined in the hall dedicated to the renowned officials who had worked in Guizhou. Local residents offered seasonal sacrifices to this brilliant governor. Guo’s observation of Guizhou and political practice were indeed successful， and to the present day people can draw on them for reference.
Translated by Chi Zhen