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Abstract：Why people enjoy different degrees of success in second language learning，given similar opportunities.In the presence of overly negative emotions such as anxiety，fear，stress，anger or depression，our optimal learning potential maybe compromised.The affective domain refers to the emotional domain that has to do with the emotional behavior of human beings.It includes such factors as self-confidence，extroversion，anxiety，attitudes and motivation.Three major factors are introduced here：self-confidence，anxiety and motivation.
Key words：self-confidence,anxiety,motivation
Introduction
In seeking to explain why people enjoy different degrees of success in second language learning，given similar opportunities，we were long accustomed to thinking almost exclusively in terms of intelligence and language aptitude.Some people seemed simply to be “better” at language learning than others.Research and experience have revealed a large number of psychological factors that might influence the course of learning.Neural scientist LeDoux sees emotion and cognition as partners in the mind.
In the presence of overly negative emotions such as anxiety，fear，stress，anger or depression，our optimal learning potential maybe compromised.The most innovative techniques and the most attractive materials may be rendered inadequate，if not useless，by negative affective reactions involved with the language learning process.Anxiety，for example，can wreak havoc with the neurological conditions in the prefrontal lobe of the brain，preventing memory from operating properly and thus greatly reducing learning capacity (Stevick,2000).Fortunately，language teachers are becoming increasingly aware of the importance of negative emotional factors and of ways to handle them.
Human beings are emotional creatures.They do not take in everything they hear or see.Their emotional states and other affective factors filter what they take in.According to the creative construction model of Burt and Dulay，the affective filter screens incoming language data and constitutes the first main hurdle that incoming language data must encounter before they are processed further.That is to say，affective variables also play an important role in making individual differences in language learning.
The affective domain refers to the emotional domain that has to do with the emotional behavior of human beings.It includes such factors as self-confidence，extroversion，anxiety，attitudes and motivation.Three major factors are introduced here：self-confidence，anxiety and motivation.
Self-confidence
Gardner and MacIntyre (1993) point out that self-confidence is related to language learning in an inverse way to anxiety，and that both traits play a part in motivation and are related to stable personality characteristics.Work in Canada has shown that self-confidence may，however，be more than just the opposite of anxiety.In work in multicultural settings，self-confidence may be a mixture of lack of anxiety，good opinions of ones own proficiency and using the second language outside the classroom.
Another way of phrasing this one is the ‘I can do it’ principle，or the self-esteem principle.At the heart of all learning is the condition that a person believes in his or her own ability to accomplish the task.While self-confidence can be linked to the language ego principle above，it goes a step further in emphasizing the importance of the learners self-assessment，regardless of the degree of language ego involvement.
Nearly all the available literature suggests that self-confidence is closely related to L2 learning.According to Dulay et al.(1982:75)，all things being equal，the self-confident，secure person is a more successful language learner.They suggest that self-confident people have the advantage of not fearing rejection and are therefore more likely to put themselves in learning situations and do so repeatedly.They are less likely to be thrown into personal turmoil when they make mistakes than those who are more self-conscious.This probably enhances subconscious language learning because they are more able to take in and process what they hear at any moment.In addition，self-confident people are less hampered by the conscious operation of the monitor because they are not so worried about how they appear.
Anxiety
Anxiety is quite possibly the affective factor that most pervasively obstructs the learning process.It is associated with negative feelings such as uneasiness，frustration，self-doubt，apprehension and tension.There are few，if any，disciplines in the curriculum which lay themselves open to anxiety production more than foreign or second language learning.There is a great deal of vulnerability involved in trying to express oneself before others in a shaky linguistic vehicle.It is possible in some cases that the methodology used can contribute to furthering anxiety.With the grammar-translation method one might assume a reduction of the possibility of anxiety，since the learners have relatively little of themselves invested in the activities required.However，with the advent of methods which focus on communication，and especially communication involving more personal aspects of one’s being，such as feelings，if care is not taken to provide an emotionally safe atmosphere，the chance for the development of anxiety-provoking situations can increase greatly.This is particularly true if at the same time the stakes involved are very high，such as in academic settings，where the evaluation of the learner can conceivably have far-reaching consequences.
When anxiety is present in the classroom，there is a down-spiralling effect.Anxiety makes us nervous and afraid and thus contributes to poor performance；this in turn creates even more anxiety and worse performance.The feelings of fear and nervousness are intimately connected to the cognitive side of anxiety，which is worry.Worry wastes energy that should be used for memory and processing on a type of thinking which in no way facilitates the task at hand (Eysenck 1979).
Motivation
1.Motivation and Anxiety
Among affective factors，people have found that self-confidence has as an inverse relation to anxiety，and so does motivation to anxiety.Highly motivated people may be able to cope with anxiety about learning experience better than others (Encychopedic Dictionary of Applied Linguistics：221).Vice verse，anxiety is a hindrance to stimulating learning motivation (Li Lisheng，2000).Anxious students are common in foreign language classroom (Maclntyre and Gardner，1994).In FLL，learners very possibly meet with lots of difficulties，quite frequently anxiety arouses in the course of learning，highly motivated learners can overcome their anxiety more easily.Motivation is a positive factor in FLL and it “ may have a role to play in anxiety management” (Encychopedic Dictionary of Applied Linguistics：221).
2.Intrinsic and Extrinsic motivation
Motivation is an element a language teacher can no longer afford to neglect.As a kind of driving force，motivation propels the learner toward his goals.According to many literature sources，motivation can be generally classified as extrinsic and intrinsic motivation.
Motivation is ‘intrinsic’ where it is free of any ulterior purpose， ‘extrinsic’ where an ulterior purpose is involved.For example，‘intrinsically’ motivated people will want to learn a language ‘for its own sake’ (because it is some how interesting as an object of study)，rather than for the ‘extrinsic’ reason that they wish to integrate into any community which speaks that language，or wish to benefit materially.
The abstract term ‘motivation’ on its own is rather difficult to define.It is easier and more useful to think in terms of the ‘motivated’ learner：one who is willing or even eager to invest effort in learning activities and to progress.Learner motivation makes teaching and learning immeasurably easier and more pleasant，as well as
more productive：hence the importance of the topic for teachers.Various studies have found that motivation is very strongly related to achievement in language learning.
With intrinsic motivation the learning experience is its own reward：“Intrinsic motivation is in evidence whenever students” natural curiosity and interest energize their learning’ (Deci and Ryan 1985:245).Discussing the optima conditions for the development of intrinsic motivation，Deci (1992:60) highlights “autonomy support，competence-promoting feedback and interpersonal involvement”.
Extrinsic motivation is that which derives from the influence of some kind of external incentive，as distinct from the wish to learn for its own sake or interest in tasks.Many sources of extrinsic motivation are inaccessible to the influence of the teacher：for example，the desire of students to please some other authority figure such as parents，their wish to succeed in an external exam，or peer-group influences.However，other sources are certainly affected by teacher action.
Extrinsic motivation comes from the desire to get a reward or avoid punishment；the focus is on something external to the learning activity itself.
There can be no doubt that in some circumstances，for some individuals，external rewards do work，at least in the short term and with regard to the specific situation in which they are applied.However，the evidence for any generalization effect is considerably more limited.Moreover，the evidence on punishments or sanctions tends to reveal that not only are they ineffective in bringing about positive change，but they can often have the opposite effect.(Marion Williams &Robert L.Burden：135 )
Studies have shown that adding extrinsic rewards can actually reduce motivation.In experimental situations subjects have been shown to exhibit reduced efficiency and pleasure in an intrinsically interesting task when an extrinsic reward was introduced (Kohn 1990) Brown (1994:20) pointed out that “classroom techniques have a much greater chance for success if they are self-rewarding in the perception of the learner”.(XuZhe，1997)
Research indicates that，while extrinsic motivation can also be beneficial，learning is most favorably influenced by intrinsic orientations，especially for long-term retention.With their emphasis on teacher-directed classrooms，grades，tests and competitiveness，most schools encourage only extrinsic motivation.This has the effect of leading students to work to please teachers or authorities，rather than of developing a love of knowledge in independent minds.Bruner (1962) speaks of “the autonomy of self-reward”，affirming that one of the most effective ways to help children think and learn is to “free” them from the control of rewards and punishments.
It is reasonable to assume that our language learners will generally have a better chance of success with the development of intrinsic forms of motivation in which they learn for their own personal reasons of achieving competence and autonomy，although feedback leading to increased feelings of competence and self-determination is one extrinsic reward shown to further intrinsic motivation (Brown 1994b：39).In any event，what matters is how learners internalize the external aspects，making personal sense of them.(1997)
3.Initiating and Sustaining Motivation
The literature has tended not to differentiate clearly between what initiates motivation，i.e.‘turns someone onto an activity，and what sustains the involvement in the activity，i.e.keeps them interested in pursuing a particular goal.There are a multitude of reasons why learners may well be highly motivated to begin learning a foreign language，but it is really important to sustain that motivation.
Conclusion
Stimulating various positive emotional factors，such as self-esteem，empathy or motivation，can greatly facilitate the language learning process.
The relationship between affect and language learning，then，is a bi-directional one.Attention to affect can improve language teaching and learning，but the language classroom can，in turn，contribute in a very significant way to educating learners affectively.While striving to resolve the at least numerically more predominant negative emotions，one should not loose sight of the importance of developing the positive.
References
1.D•rnyei，Z.Conceptualizing motivation in foreign language learning【J】.Language Learning，40:45-78.1990
2.Kohonen，V.Experiential language learning：second language learning as cooperative learner education.In D.Nunan (Ed) Collaborative Language Learning and Teaching.Cambridge：Cambridge University Press,1992
3.Ranson，S.Towards the learning Society.London：Cassell,1994
4.Brown，H.D.Teaching by Principle：An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy.NJPrentice-Hall,1994
5.O’Malley and Valdez Pierce.Authentic Assessment for English Language Learners,1996
6.Kohonen，V.Language learning as learner education is also a question of school development.In L.Losfman，L.Kurki-Suonio，S.Pellinen and J.Lehtonen (Eds.) The Competent Intercultural Communicator.Tampere：AfinLA Series of Publications 51,267-287.1993
7.Yue，M.Y.Applied Linguistic【M】，Manjing：Nanjing Normal University Press,1999
作者简介
李文敬（1967- ），女，江苏阜宁人，副教授，英语硕士，研究方向：应用语言学.
Key words：self-confidence,anxiety,motivation
Introduction
In seeking to explain why people enjoy different degrees of success in second language learning，given similar opportunities，we were long accustomed to thinking almost exclusively in terms of intelligence and language aptitude.Some people seemed simply to be “better” at language learning than others.Research and experience have revealed a large number of psychological factors that might influence the course of learning.Neural scientist LeDoux sees emotion and cognition as partners in the mind.
In the presence of overly negative emotions such as anxiety，fear，stress，anger or depression，our optimal learning potential maybe compromised.The most innovative techniques and the most attractive materials may be rendered inadequate，if not useless，by negative affective reactions involved with the language learning process.Anxiety，for example，can wreak havoc with the neurological conditions in the prefrontal lobe of the brain，preventing memory from operating properly and thus greatly reducing learning capacity (Stevick,2000).Fortunately，language teachers are becoming increasingly aware of the importance of negative emotional factors and of ways to handle them.
Human beings are emotional creatures.They do not take in everything they hear or see.Their emotional states and other affective factors filter what they take in.According to the creative construction model of Burt and Dulay，the affective filter screens incoming language data and constitutes the first main hurdle that incoming language data must encounter before they are processed further.That is to say，affective variables also play an important role in making individual differences in language learning.
The affective domain refers to the emotional domain that has to do with the emotional behavior of human beings.It includes such factors as self-confidence，extroversion，anxiety，attitudes and motivation.Three major factors are introduced here：self-confidence，anxiety and motivation.
Self-confidence
Gardner and MacIntyre (1993) point out that self-confidence is related to language learning in an inverse way to anxiety，and that both traits play a part in motivation and are related to stable personality characteristics.Work in Canada has shown that self-confidence may，however，be more than just the opposite of anxiety.In work in multicultural settings，self-confidence may be a mixture of lack of anxiety，good opinions of ones own proficiency and using the second language outside the classroom.
Another way of phrasing this one is the ‘I can do it’ principle，or the self-esteem principle.At the heart of all learning is the condition that a person believes in his or her own ability to accomplish the task.While self-confidence can be linked to the language ego principle above，it goes a step further in emphasizing the importance of the learners self-assessment，regardless of the degree of language ego involvement.
Nearly all the available literature suggests that self-confidence is closely related to L2 learning.According to Dulay et al.(1982:75)，all things being equal，the self-confident，secure person is a more successful language learner.They suggest that self-confident people have the advantage of not fearing rejection and are therefore more likely to put themselves in learning situations and do so repeatedly.They are less likely to be thrown into personal turmoil when they make mistakes than those who are more self-conscious.This probably enhances subconscious language learning because they are more able to take in and process what they hear at any moment.In addition，self-confident people are less hampered by the conscious operation of the monitor because they are not so worried about how they appear.
Anxiety
Anxiety is quite possibly the affective factor that most pervasively obstructs the learning process.It is associated with negative feelings such as uneasiness，frustration，self-doubt，apprehension and tension.There are few，if any，disciplines in the curriculum which lay themselves open to anxiety production more than foreign or second language learning.There is a great deal of vulnerability involved in trying to express oneself before others in a shaky linguistic vehicle.It is possible in some cases that the methodology used can contribute to furthering anxiety.With the grammar-translation method one might assume a reduction of the possibility of anxiety，since the learners have relatively little of themselves invested in the activities required.However，with the advent of methods which focus on communication，and especially communication involving more personal aspects of one’s being，such as feelings，if care is not taken to provide an emotionally safe atmosphere，the chance for the development of anxiety-provoking situations can increase greatly.This is particularly true if at the same time the stakes involved are very high，such as in academic settings，where the evaluation of the learner can conceivably have far-reaching consequences.
When anxiety is present in the classroom，there is a down-spiralling effect.Anxiety makes us nervous and afraid and thus contributes to poor performance；this in turn creates even more anxiety and worse performance.The feelings of fear and nervousness are intimately connected to the cognitive side of anxiety，which is worry.Worry wastes energy that should be used for memory and processing on a type of thinking which in no way facilitates the task at hand (Eysenck 1979).
Motivation
1.Motivation and Anxiety
Among affective factors，people have found that self-confidence has as an inverse relation to anxiety，and so does motivation to anxiety.Highly motivated people may be able to cope with anxiety about learning experience better than others (Encychopedic Dictionary of Applied Linguistics：221).Vice verse，anxiety is a hindrance to stimulating learning motivation (Li Lisheng，2000).Anxious students are common in foreign language classroom (Maclntyre and Gardner，1994).In FLL，learners very possibly meet with lots of difficulties，quite frequently anxiety arouses in the course of learning，highly motivated learners can overcome their anxiety more easily.Motivation is a positive factor in FLL and it “ may have a role to play in anxiety management” (Encychopedic Dictionary of Applied Linguistics：221).
2.Intrinsic and Extrinsic motivation
Motivation is an element a language teacher can no longer afford to neglect.As a kind of driving force，motivation propels the learner toward his goals.According to many literature sources，motivation can be generally classified as extrinsic and intrinsic motivation.
Motivation is ‘intrinsic’ where it is free of any ulterior purpose， ‘extrinsic’ where an ulterior purpose is involved.For example，‘intrinsically’ motivated people will want to learn a language ‘for its own sake’ (because it is some how interesting as an object of study)，rather than for the ‘extrinsic’ reason that they wish to integrate into any community which speaks that language，or wish to benefit materially.
The abstract term ‘motivation’ on its own is rather difficult to define.It is easier and more useful to think in terms of the ‘motivated’ learner：one who is willing or even eager to invest effort in learning activities and to progress.Learner motivation makes teaching and learning immeasurably easier and more pleasant，as well as
more productive：hence the importance of the topic for teachers.Various studies have found that motivation is very strongly related to achievement in language learning.
With intrinsic motivation the learning experience is its own reward：“Intrinsic motivation is in evidence whenever students” natural curiosity and interest energize their learning’ (Deci and Ryan 1985:245).Discussing the optima conditions for the development of intrinsic motivation，Deci (1992:60) highlights “autonomy support，competence-promoting feedback and interpersonal involvement”.
Extrinsic motivation is that which derives from the influence of some kind of external incentive，as distinct from the wish to learn for its own sake or interest in tasks.Many sources of extrinsic motivation are inaccessible to the influence of the teacher：for example，the desire of students to please some other authority figure such as parents，their wish to succeed in an external exam，or peer-group influences.However，other sources are certainly affected by teacher action.
Extrinsic motivation comes from the desire to get a reward or avoid punishment；the focus is on something external to the learning activity itself.
There can be no doubt that in some circumstances，for some individuals，external rewards do work，at least in the short term and with regard to the specific situation in which they are applied.However，the evidence for any generalization effect is considerably more limited.Moreover，the evidence on punishments or sanctions tends to reveal that not only are they ineffective in bringing about positive change，but they can often have the opposite effect.(Marion Williams &Robert L.Burden：135 )
Studies have shown that adding extrinsic rewards can actually reduce motivation.In experimental situations subjects have been shown to exhibit reduced efficiency and pleasure in an intrinsically interesting task when an extrinsic reward was introduced (Kohn 1990) Brown (1994:20) pointed out that “classroom techniques have a much greater chance for success if they are self-rewarding in the perception of the learner”.(XuZhe，1997)
Research indicates that，while extrinsic motivation can also be beneficial，learning is most favorably influenced by intrinsic orientations，especially for long-term retention.With their emphasis on teacher-directed classrooms，grades，tests and competitiveness，most schools encourage only extrinsic motivation.This has the effect of leading students to work to please teachers or authorities，rather than of developing a love of knowledge in independent minds.Bruner (1962) speaks of “the autonomy of self-reward”，affirming that one of the most effective ways to help children think and learn is to “free” them from the control of rewards and punishments.
It is reasonable to assume that our language learners will generally have a better chance of success with the development of intrinsic forms of motivation in which they learn for their own personal reasons of achieving competence and autonomy，although feedback leading to increased feelings of competence and self-determination is one extrinsic reward shown to further intrinsic motivation (Brown 1994b：39).In any event，what matters is how learners internalize the external aspects，making personal sense of them.(1997)
3.Initiating and Sustaining Motivation
The literature has tended not to differentiate clearly between what initiates motivation，i.e.‘turns someone onto an activity，and what sustains the involvement in the activity，i.e.keeps them interested in pursuing a particular goal.There are a multitude of reasons why learners may well be highly motivated to begin learning a foreign language，but it is really important to sustain that motivation.
Conclusion
Stimulating various positive emotional factors，such as self-esteem，empathy or motivation，can greatly facilitate the language learning process.
The relationship between affect and language learning，then，is a bi-directional one.Attention to affect can improve language teaching and learning，but the language classroom can，in turn，contribute in a very significant way to educating learners affectively.While striving to resolve the at least numerically more predominant negative emotions，one should not loose sight of the importance of developing the positive.
References
1.D•rnyei，Z.Conceptualizing motivation in foreign language learning【J】.Language Learning，40:45-78.1990
2.Kohonen，V.Experiential language learning：second language learning as cooperative learner education.In D.Nunan (Ed) Collaborative Language Learning and Teaching.Cambridge：Cambridge University Press,1992
3.Ranson，S.Towards the learning Society.London：Cassell,1994
4.Brown，H.D.Teaching by Principle：An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy.NJPrentice-Hall,1994
5.O’Malley and Valdez Pierce.Authentic Assessment for English Language Learners,1996
6.Kohonen，V.Language learning as learner education is also a question of school development.In L.Losfman，L.Kurki-Suonio，S.Pellinen and J.Lehtonen (Eds.) The Competent Intercultural Communicator.Tampere：AfinLA Series of Publications 51,267-287.1993
7.Yue，M.Y.Applied Linguistic【M】，Manjing：Nanjing Normal University Press,1999
作者简介
李文敬（1967- ），女，江苏阜宁人，副教授，英语硕士，研究方向：应用语言学.