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The purpose of this paper is to show how activating perception, imagery and creativity facilitate the mastery of specific skills of visual arts education. Specifically, the study aimed at answering two questions: How can teachers enhance visual and creative expression?; and What criteria should be used to evaluate specific learning of visual arts skills? Based on a literature review on visual language two specific exercises were devised: one concerning the elaboration and meaning attribution of an image and the other the illustration of a concept. The two exercises were applied to 100 13-year-old students of a rural community in Portugal. The exercises were evaluated in terms of fluency, flexibility, originality, elaboration, expressiveness and adequateness. The results reveal statistically significant differences in these dimensions after the completion of second exercise, revealing that it is possible to use elements of the visual code to express ideas in creative ways.
Keywords: creativity, perception, imagery, visual language
following step was the composition of an illustration of one, two or three rights using nine of the three basic geometric figures (squares, circles and triangles) in order to communicate the fundamental concept of the right(s) into the six equal parts of the sheet of paper. The first composition had to be drawn, with the same materials of the first exercise. The following compositions, if done, could resource to digital support, namely, using a PowerPoint application. Analogic technologies facilitate a first approach to experimentation, whereas digital technologies give expressiveness to production. While the first exercise called for the random composition of forms and subsequent assignment of meaning to these combinations, the second exercise aimed at developing the ability to communicate an idea, using the elements of the visual code.
In terms of evaluation, the final products of both exercises were analysed in order to capture the extent to which the students were able to use elements of the visual code in communicating ideas. The evaluation criteria aimed at rating the composition of the elements of the visual language and the creativity of the compositions and meaning attribution in terms of: (1) fluency, which refers to the number of relevant ideas; (2) flexibility, which refers to the number of categories or themes that underlie the ideas; (3) originality, defined by statistical infrequency; (4) elaboration, associated with the number of details; expressiveness, focusing on the richness of the image (Torrance, 1966); and (5) also adequacy (Nickerson, Perkins, & Smith, 1985), that is, the possibility of adaptation to reality. In concrete terms, each composition was rated from 1 to 5, where 1 was the total absence and 5 was the full inclusion of the following elements of each criteria:
(1) Fluency?number of appropriate responses to the given task (the presence of six rectangles, nine figures and variation in terms of the rules?figures used, different directions and scale);
(2) Flexibility?use of different categories of knowledge to assign meaning or illustrate the concept;
(3) Originality?infrequency of responses and non-use of stereotypical images;
(4) Elaboration?richness of the variation of the application of the figures (direction, dynamic and static composition, scale, flexible use of the space and rigor in the construction of ideas);
(5) Expressiveness?strengthening the code of form that reveals emotional richness;
(6) Overall assessment?overall assessment of the work taking into account the composition of figures and creativity of the product. Procedure
The exercises were a part of a specific didactic unit of the discipline of visual education, namely, graphic design that is usually worked in the 7th grade. The first exercise was conducted during two 90-minute classes, while the second exercise lasted three 90 minutes classes. Overall, the students were receptive and engaged in the exercises. However, the first part of the first exercise was accompanied by various comments from students. Some were pleased to be able to carry out a new challenge, commenting that overcoming a problem without a concrete reference was an innovative experience. However, the majority of the students expressed some initial resistance “How can we do something without a specific purpose?”. At the end of the second exercise, these students were pleased, because they had discovered the reason why they had done the first exercise. The second exercise was received with enthusiasm and the students were able to accomplish it without resistance and in an autonomous way.
The comparative analysis between the first and second exercises revealed significant differences in all the evaluation criteria. These differences were strong (p < 0.01), with exception to flexibility (p < 0.05), revealing that between both exercises, the 100 students internalized and applied elements of visual language.
The first exercise intended to systematize the process of representation of ideas using visual language(Dondis, 1991) through figure composition and the subsequent recognition, interpretation and communication of its meaning (Buttenfield & Mackaness, 1992). In the first part of this exercise, students were asked to apply visual language without considering the representation of an idea. Composition rules of the grouping of geometric figures were specified, leading some students to express expectations of failure. In spite of this negative expectation, these students and all the others without exception performed the final exercise of the strategy. Experimenting various possible combinations of figures facilitated the creative process through the construction of new models (Paivio, 1971). The exercises also seem to have stimulated the process of propositional representation by decomposing and composing the elements and in a second phase recomposing them through the use of logical operations (Dean et al., 1986). As Cornelius and Casler (1991) claimed, image allows for the creation of new ideas. Analysing the compositions of the first exercise encouraged a reflection on the use of the elements of visual language. The second phase of this exercise trained observational and interpretation skills that had not been requested in the first phase of the exercise and ultimately encouraged the process of discovery of a specific visual code. Thus, this second phase of the first exercise called for the
perception of the whole as well as the decoding and understanding of images formed through a gestalt dynamic, as L?wgren and Stolterman (2005) suggested. Assigning a theme to the combinations promoted a flexible search for solutions (Torrance, 1988).
The second exercise sought to stimulate the simplification of an abstract reality?a human right, and its understanding and expression in a functional way allowing a clear communication of the idea (Lupton & Miller, 1991). The success in this exercise showed the effectiveness of the training of observation, interpretation, use and communication of the visual elements of this code. In terms of creativity, the number of original ideas and expressive details also increased significantly. However, flexibility was not stimulated with the same expression. One explanation is based on the argument that fluency, originality, elaboration and expressiveness are the dimensions of creativity usually evaluated in Torrance’s tests for creative thinking (Torrance, 1966), but not flexibility (Kim, 2006) due to its proximity to the fluency of ideas. What may have happened is that the students had more ideas, but did not have enough time to advance with ideas from a wide range of categories. Time is as essential dimension of arts education, as Eisner (2002) referred. Another explanation resides in a difference in the nature of the exercises: The first exercise, while appealing first to the free experimentation of figure composition and then to the attribution of meaning, may have enhanced flexibility more than the second exercise that more restricted, because the number of categories of the composition was constrained to the illustration of three children’s rights. Contrary to this expectation, the final products revealed higher flexibility levels. This result seems to point to the efficacy of the applied strategy in spite of the nature of the last exercise not appealing directly to a more flexible thought. Nonetheless, the other dimensions of creativity were clearly stimulated, that is, students were more original, expressive and adequate in the expression of innovative ideas communicated through visual language.
The promotion of strategies that seek to develop the internalization of visual elements also helps to structure visual thinking, in that it is not possible to separate language and visual thinking (Aumont, 1990). The comments of students during and after the exercises showed that they understood the potential variation in the figures. Some students showed a high resistance towards the first exercise but in the end expressed their satisfaction for being able to assign a meaning to their work. Most academic tasks are based on an “a priori”attribution of meaning and that was why students who showed an initial resistance to the first part of the exercise. In this sense, all experiences that appeal to non-routinely procedures potentiate creativity (Torrance, 1988). As Bovet and Voelin (2007) defended, the use of image structures operative reasoning. Consequently, training perception, visualization and abstraction tend to favour the development of mental operations of reasoning in new situations (Primi, 2002) and its transfer to other areas, as suggested by Hetland and Winner(2008).
The structured exercises with the basic geometric figures used in the Bauhaus proved effective in promoting specific visual education skills in a group of adolescent students from a rural community. Mastering this simple code enabled these adolescents to develop of a form of universal understanding and formulation of ideas, revealing that an intervention based on concepts of the psychological realm may have a very positive impact on the context of arts education. Ultimately, grounding educational experiences on the theoretical foundations of psychological concepts enhances teaching and learning, allowing the development of multiple forms of literacy at the service of the poetic rather than the literal enabling the recovery and expression of meanings, as Eisner (2008) recently proposed, because the limits of cognition are not defined by the limits of language (Eisner, 2002).
Keywords: creativity, perception, imagery, visual language
following step was the composition of an illustration of one, two or three rights using nine of the three basic geometric figures (squares, circles and triangles) in order to communicate the fundamental concept of the right(s) into the six equal parts of the sheet of paper. The first composition had to be drawn, with the same materials of the first exercise. The following compositions, if done, could resource to digital support, namely, using a PowerPoint application. Analogic technologies facilitate a first approach to experimentation, whereas digital technologies give expressiveness to production. While the first exercise called for the random composition of forms and subsequent assignment of meaning to these combinations, the second exercise aimed at developing the ability to communicate an idea, using the elements of the visual code.
In terms of evaluation, the final products of both exercises were analysed in order to capture the extent to which the students were able to use elements of the visual code in communicating ideas. The evaluation criteria aimed at rating the composition of the elements of the visual language and the creativity of the compositions and meaning attribution in terms of: (1) fluency, which refers to the number of relevant ideas; (2) flexibility, which refers to the number of categories or themes that underlie the ideas; (3) originality, defined by statistical infrequency; (4) elaboration, associated with the number of details; expressiveness, focusing on the richness of the image (Torrance, 1966); and (5) also adequacy (Nickerson, Perkins, & Smith, 1985), that is, the possibility of adaptation to reality. In concrete terms, each composition was rated from 1 to 5, where 1 was the total absence and 5 was the full inclusion of the following elements of each criteria:
(1) Fluency?number of appropriate responses to the given task (the presence of six rectangles, nine figures and variation in terms of the rules?figures used, different directions and scale);
(2) Flexibility?use of different categories of knowledge to assign meaning or illustrate the concept;
(3) Originality?infrequency of responses and non-use of stereotypical images;
(4) Elaboration?richness of the variation of the application of the figures (direction, dynamic and static composition, scale, flexible use of the space and rigor in the construction of ideas);
(5) Expressiveness?strengthening the code of form that reveals emotional richness;
(6) Overall assessment?overall assessment of the work taking into account the composition of figures and creativity of the product. Procedure
The exercises were a part of a specific didactic unit of the discipline of visual education, namely, graphic design that is usually worked in the 7th grade. The first exercise was conducted during two 90-minute classes, while the second exercise lasted three 90 minutes classes. Overall, the students were receptive and engaged in the exercises. However, the first part of the first exercise was accompanied by various comments from students. Some were pleased to be able to carry out a new challenge, commenting that overcoming a problem without a concrete reference was an innovative experience. However, the majority of the students expressed some initial resistance “How can we do something without a specific purpose?”. At the end of the second exercise, these students were pleased, because they had discovered the reason why they had done the first exercise. The second exercise was received with enthusiasm and the students were able to accomplish it without resistance and in an autonomous way.
The comparative analysis between the first and second exercises revealed significant differences in all the evaluation criteria. These differences were strong (p < 0.01), with exception to flexibility (p < 0.05), revealing that between both exercises, the 100 students internalized and applied elements of visual language.
The first exercise intended to systematize the process of representation of ideas using visual language(Dondis, 1991) through figure composition and the subsequent recognition, interpretation and communication of its meaning (Buttenfield & Mackaness, 1992). In the first part of this exercise, students were asked to apply visual language without considering the representation of an idea. Composition rules of the grouping of geometric figures were specified, leading some students to express expectations of failure. In spite of this negative expectation, these students and all the others without exception performed the final exercise of the strategy. Experimenting various possible combinations of figures facilitated the creative process through the construction of new models (Paivio, 1971). The exercises also seem to have stimulated the process of propositional representation by decomposing and composing the elements and in a second phase recomposing them through the use of logical operations (Dean et al., 1986). As Cornelius and Casler (1991) claimed, image allows for the creation of new ideas. Analysing the compositions of the first exercise encouraged a reflection on the use of the elements of visual language. The second phase of this exercise trained observational and interpretation skills that had not been requested in the first phase of the exercise and ultimately encouraged the process of discovery of a specific visual code. Thus, this second phase of the first exercise called for the
perception of the whole as well as the decoding and understanding of images formed through a gestalt dynamic, as L?wgren and Stolterman (2005) suggested. Assigning a theme to the combinations promoted a flexible search for solutions (Torrance, 1988).
The second exercise sought to stimulate the simplification of an abstract reality?a human right, and its understanding and expression in a functional way allowing a clear communication of the idea (Lupton & Miller, 1991). The success in this exercise showed the effectiveness of the training of observation, interpretation, use and communication of the visual elements of this code. In terms of creativity, the number of original ideas and expressive details also increased significantly. However, flexibility was not stimulated with the same expression. One explanation is based on the argument that fluency, originality, elaboration and expressiveness are the dimensions of creativity usually evaluated in Torrance’s tests for creative thinking (Torrance, 1966), but not flexibility (Kim, 2006) due to its proximity to the fluency of ideas. What may have happened is that the students had more ideas, but did not have enough time to advance with ideas from a wide range of categories. Time is as essential dimension of arts education, as Eisner (2002) referred. Another explanation resides in a difference in the nature of the exercises: The first exercise, while appealing first to the free experimentation of figure composition and then to the attribution of meaning, may have enhanced flexibility more than the second exercise that more restricted, because the number of categories of the composition was constrained to the illustration of three children’s rights. Contrary to this expectation, the final products revealed higher flexibility levels. This result seems to point to the efficacy of the applied strategy in spite of the nature of the last exercise not appealing directly to a more flexible thought. Nonetheless, the other dimensions of creativity were clearly stimulated, that is, students were more original, expressive and adequate in the expression of innovative ideas communicated through visual language.
The promotion of strategies that seek to develop the internalization of visual elements also helps to structure visual thinking, in that it is not possible to separate language and visual thinking (Aumont, 1990). The comments of students during and after the exercises showed that they understood the potential variation in the figures. Some students showed a high resistance towards the first exercise but in the end expressed their satisfaction for being able to assign a meaning to their work. Most academic tasks are based on an “a priori”attribution of meaning and that was why students who showed an initial resistance to the first part of the exercise. In this sense, all experiences that appeal to non-routinely procedures potentiate creativity (Torrance, 1988). As Bovet and Voelin (2007) defended, the use of image structures operative reasoning. Consequently, training perception, visualization and abstraction tend to favour the development of mental operations of reasoning in new situations (Primi, 2002) and its transfer to other areas, as suggested by Hetland and Winner(2008).
The structured exercises with the basic geometric figures used in the Bauhaus proved effective in promoting specific visual education skills in a group of adolescent students from a rural community. Mastering this simple code enabled these adolescents to develop of a form of universal understanding and formulation of ideas, revealing that an intervention based on concepts of the psychological realm may have a very positive impact on the context of arts education. Ultimately, grounding educational experiences on the theoretical foundations of psychological concepts enhances teaching and learning, allowing the development of multiple forms of literacy at the service of the poetic rather than the literal enabling the recovery and expression of meanings, as Eisner (2008) recently proposed, because the limits of cognition are not defined by the limits of language (Eisner, 2002).