尽管在十八世纪沃尔夫和康德建立了哲学“专业化”的传统,但是十九世纪的哲学仍然大都由高等学府之外的人们创造的。唯有德国唯心主义学派是植根于校园之中。然而,今天要想在学院之外发现第一流的哲学家,颇为困难(当然也有例外,值得一提的是乔治·桑塔亚那的后期和让·保罗·萨特)。哲学家们越来越多的引进技术性词汇,研究特殊问题;他们只是为了相互之间的论争而著述。 Despite the tradition of philosophical “specialization” established by Wolfe and Kant during the eighteenth century, 19th-century philosophy was still largely created by people outside institutions of higher learning. Only the German idealist school is rooted in the campus. However, it is quite difficult to find top-notch philosophers outside the academy today (and of course there are exceptions, notably George Santayana’s later phase and Jean Paul Sartre). More and more philosophers introduce technical terms and study special problems; they are written only for the sake of mutual controversy.