Abstract： The Confucian learning of the mind， dating back to Mencius， developed during the Southern Song and reached its zenith in the Ming dynasty. Scholars today who are interested in the philosophy of the mind mostly focus their attention on Wang Yangming’s philosophy to the neglect of other philosophers， particularly the Lingnan scholars. The fact is that the Jiangmen School， founded by Chen Xianzhang， was the authentic origin of the Neo-Confucian learning of the mind. The Lingnan scholarship saw its peak period during the mid-Ming when it set the intellectual trend and moved from the periphery to the center of the circle of learning. The Lingnan philosophy of the mind is distinguished for its focus on self-acquisition in learning and respect for the natural， that is， to cultivate one’s intellectual and moral self by quiet reflection， to experience the principle of Heaven in any place and at any time， and to seek the unity of Heaven and humanity. The Lingnan scholars never held a blind belief in anyone or any doctrine of authority， but followed the inner moral rules to cultivate their minds and nature in daily life， to be sincere in practical matters whether big or trifling， and to keep toiling away in pursuit of sagehood.
　　Keywords： Lingnan philosophy of the mind， Chen Xianzhang， Zhan Ruoshui， self-acquisition， the natural， quiet meditation， moral cultivation in any place and at any time
　　Lingnan refers to a group of geographical regions in today’s Guangdong， Guangxi， Hainan， Hong Kong， and Macao in southern China. The spread of Confucianism in Lingnan was represented by many native scholars in history， for example， Chen Qin 陳钦 （d. 15）， Chen Yuan 陈元 （fl. 25–31）， Chen Jianqing 陈坚卿， and Shi Xie 士燮 （137–226） in the Han dynasty， Zhang Jiuling 张九龄 （673–740） and Han Yu 韩愈 （768–824） of the Tang dynasty， and Yu Jing 余靖 （1000–1064） and Cui Yuzhi 崔与之 （1158–1239） in the Song dynasty. Historically speaking， however， Confucianism was not widespread and had limited influence in this region， which was geographically separated from the Central Plains of China and peripheral to the political centers and the Confucian culture. This situation saw a striking change in the Ming dynasty （1368–1644）， when Chen Xianzhang 陈献章 （1428–1500， a.k.a. Master Baisha 白沙） rose to fame with his followers known as the Jiangmen School， which set the intellectual trend and led to the rediscovery of the Confucian philosophy of the mind and its subsequent development.
　　It was Chen Xianzhang who initiated the Lingnan philosophy of the mind， and his teachings laid the foundation of the major tenets and core ideas of the philosophy. He had a large number of followers and disciples， the most outstanding of whom were， among others， Lin Guang 林光 （fl. 1465–1501）， Zhang Xu 张诩 （1455–1514， style name Tingshi 廷实， pen name Dongsuo 东所）， Zhan Ruoshui 湛若水 （1466–1560， pen name Ganquan 甘泉）， He Qin 贺钦 （1437–1510， style name Kegong 克恭）， and Li Chengji 李承箕 （1452–1505）. Zhan Ruoshui was the authentic successor to Chen’s teachings and a founding master of the Lingnan School when， even at the age of ninety-five， he set up many academies to pass on Chen Xianzhang’s teachings. He interacted closely with Wang Yangming 王阳明 （1472–1528）， led the learning of the mind into a promising region， and was thus regarded as one of the two masters of the mind， other than Wang. For a time， Wang and Zhan’s teachings on the mind almost dominated Ming academia. After Zhan’s time， as the Yue （present Guangdong） scholars gradually left the Lingnan region and there were frequent exchanges and mutual learning between the disciples of Wang and Zhan， the academic lineage and division of traditions grew vague and indistinguishable. Only a few of the later scholars， like Pang Song 庞嵩 （fl. 1534–1544）， Tang Boyuan 唐伯元 （1540–1598）， and Wang Jiankui 王渐逵 （1498–1559） might be said to come closer to Zhan Ruoshui’s teaching. Finally， the Lingnan school of the mind， centered on Chen Xianzhang and Zhan Ruoshui’s teachings， completed its historic transformation from a marginal school at Yue to a mainstay of Neo-Confucianism， through its construction and transmission by several generations over a period of a century since the mid-Ming. 　　Learning through Self-Acquisition as Reversing an
　　Intellectual Trend [Refer to page 62 for Chinese. Similarly hereinafter]
　　The idea of zide 自得 （self-acquisition） is derived from Mencius 4B：14.
　　A junzi 君子 immerses himself deeply in the dao 道， wishing to acquire it for himself. Having acquired it for himself， he abides by it calmly and firmly. Abiding by it calmly and firmly， he deeply relies on it. Deeply relying on it， he draws upon it everywhere as a fountain from which things flow. It is on this account that the junzi wishes to acquire it for himself.
　　Mencius’s teachings of “exerting one’s mind to the utmost and knowing one’s nature” and “preserving the mind and nurturing nature” were rooted in his idea of the “unity of Heaven and humanity in virtue.” Therefore， only when one regards his individual life as one body with Heaven， Earth， and the myriad things could he follow his path in accordance with the decree of Heaven. After years of self-cultivation， one’s mind would be enlightened and be able to gain intuitive knowledge， as Mencius said： “The ability possessed by men without having been acquired by learning is intuitive ability， and the knowledge possessed by them without the exercise of thought is their intuitive knowledge” （Mencius 7A：15）.
　　Cheng Hao 程顥 （1032–1085） gave his explanation of Mencius’s idea of zide： “Probably zide means to gain knowledge for oneself without verbal instruction; and it is not gained for oneself if it is taught by design or arrangement.” He also made a point of “learning through self-acquisition” and “learning for oneself through silent understanding.” If one is habituated to gaining insight into one’s daily life， in leisurely travel or playful enjoyment， at banquets or between meals， one will certainly obtain knowledge if this accumulation of genuine effort lasts long enough. Such self-acquired knowledge is obviously not spoken of in any epistemological sense but refers to an intuitive sense of the moral self， which will eventually manifest itself through being honed and tempered by daily practical affairs over the months and years. It is about the methodology of making conscientious efforts， rather than any epistemology relating to external knowledge. It thus can be seen that zide or “self-acquisition” does not refer to obtaining knowledge from books and texts， but to the revelation of moral attainment by one’s true mind through keen experiences of actual life.
　　Obviously， Chen Xianzhang’s approach to Confucian learning follows the tradition of Mencius， who did not put as much importance on book knowledge as on reflection or meditation from the inner mind. He emphasized a spirit that keeps one independent of the world. Chen had been frustrated by disappointments in the civil examinations， after which he stayed away from pursuing the career of a scholar-official but practiced quiet sitting and meditation at home for ten years. He explained， “Since I could grasp the crux of moral ideas for myself， why should I have to pry into obsolete texts？” He portrayed his experience of self-acquisition as a mental state in which he “stands independent of others， neither being pleased by external gains， nor saddened by personal losses.” The vast， flood-like qi 气 or passion-nature， in which “flowery vanity is cast off and the reality remains，” swelled in his breast. He gave ample illumination with these remarks in his letter， “To He Kegong the Supervising Secretary” [与贺克恭黄门]： 　　If one wishes to learn from sages or men of merit， he should settle down to follow them in earnest practice. If one only has the wish to do so out of his admiration for them， he will eventually stop short， I am afraid， and be of little avail in the end. If， on the other hand， one should not hold admiration for sages and worthies， would I then have the motivation to learn from them at all？ Just think of this. If you find yourself at a place that you feel intolerable， you will not hesitate to leave the place even though you have no example to follow to escape the plight. In this case， I would say you have gained learning by self-acquisition from your own mind of judgment.
　　Keep your mind tolerantly broad and impartial; aim your vision far and your insight aloft; make your plans with prudence and foresight; set to your work with honesty and diligence. If you could follow these four maxims， you are competent to speak of learning.
　　To engage in learning， one must learn to sit in tranquil meditation and cultivate a beginning of the moral mind.
　　Such descriptive language makes no mention of the skill or approach for obtaining knowledge， but it reveals the intuitive feeling and taste by one who has entered its realm. Such personal， tacit knowledge， to be mentally understood rather than visually seen， cannot be explicitly made clear in ordinary language， nor can it be demonstrated and squared with fact. It can hardly be conveyed or exchanged but only kept privately to oneself in the mind. It is just like one who drinks water， the momentary feel of which can only be known to the drinker.
　　Such advocacy of learning by self-acquisition was a huge reversal of the Cheng–Zhu school of principle， which had gained orthodox influence since the Song （960–1279） and Yuan （1271–1368） dynasties. Chen Xianzhang went on a different path of inquiry from those of intellectual pillars of Neo-Confucianism such as Xue Xuan 薛瑄 （ca. 1389–1464）， Wu Yubi 吳与弼 （1391–1469）， and Hu Juren 胡居仁 （1434–1484）. Although Chen had studied under Wu Yubi， he was in an isolated and unaided situation among his fellow students and mentors. Especially in the early Ming dynasty， when Confucianism， being constrained by the imperial civil examination， fell in a situation where “the Six Classics were split into exegesis， digressing into the practice of rhetoric and essay writing， and the sacred learning was almost choked，” Chen Xianzhang began to advocate self-acquisition， turn the tide and reverse the trend. How challenging was the endeavor！ It was precisely because of his inspiration and encouragement with this legacy of independent spiritual character that Chen Xianzhang attracted a large number of disciples to his self-acquisition doctrine， and it was transmitted and disseminated to revive the true spirit of the philosophy of the mind. 　　His advocacy of self-acquisition broke the rigid form of book knowledge and the institutionalized doctrine of Zhu Xi 朱熹 （1130–1200）， and restored personal human life experience and moral practices and exercises to the forefront of learning. The acquisition of all knowledge must first be experienced and revealed in personal living. Only through continuous tempering of the body and mind can one obtain personal and meaningful knowledge.
　　Practicing the Heavenly Dao with Natural Behavior [64]
　　Chen Xianzhang used ziran 自然 （the natural） to reflect the moral subject’s learning through personal experience and modeling the sages. He said， “Ancient men of learning set their minds free from prejudice， so that they could be employed with ease. Those who take the root of learning in the natural must not neglect the method.” By such interpretation， the “natural” can be explained with this analogy： “[moral] principle is like water which has to be drawn from its fountainhead， and the practice and preservation of it is like the droplets that should have somewhere to fall on.” It is an issue that concerns the moral subject rather than the Daoist concept of “spontaneity，” and it is not the same as what Chan Buddhists taught. Zhan Ruoshui gave an unerring elucidation of the matter：
　　By naturalness is meant the middle road taken by the sages. Taking it， the sage can adapt to the transformation of the myriad things between heaven and earth， so that he adheres to the norm of the world as it is. . . . My teacher， Master Baisha once said， “Learning should take the natural as its model.” Others who heard it were puzzled by these words. But I have taken them to my mind and observed their instruction for forty years and it grows stronger with my conviction. My teacher’s use of “the natural” comes from Cheng Hao who argued for “enlightening the mind naturally” and “freedom from artificial efforts.” And these words by Cheng Hao may be traced to Mencius， who advised： “Let not the mind forget its work， but let there be no assisting the growth of that nature.” Mencius had actually borrowed his idea from Confucius： “There were four things from which the Master was entirely free. He had no foregone conclusions， no arbitrary predeterminations， no obstinacy， and no egoism.”
　　Such “natural，” therefore， embodies a mental state of “tolerance and harmony，” which entails such moral values as benevolence， faithful honesty， sincerity and trustworthiness. Going in the opposite direction， these Confucian values can be demonstrated to have originated from the naturalness of mind. 　　Chen Xianzhang’s advocacy of “the natural as the model of learning” is thus an inevitable outcome of the independent spirit in his academic “self-acquisition.” Loathing the stifling scholarship that aimed at the civil examinations， Chen instinctively rejected the official orthodoxy of Zhu Xi’s learning which had grown into a stereotyped dogma， and he yearned to break out of its confinement and find a new source for Confucianism to regain dynamism and vitality. Against such a background， Chen’s advocacy for self-acquisition and self-expression as a rallying cry for his philosophy of the mind， was going against the mainstream ideology and in opposition to official academics. Even though he retreated to a marginal region as a reclusive philosopher among the people， he could not escape all sorts of denigration. Reacting to Chen’s unconventional theory on the natural were two groups of scholars. Those who firmly adhered to Zhu Xi’s doctrines of investigating things to exhaust principle and keeping sincerity were for the most part critical of Chen. Scholars of the Chongren School， founded by Wu Yubi， were in particular strongly against him though they and Chen had been fellow disciples of the same master. Other scholars， who were mostly marginalized among the people， were positively responsive to his ideas and echoed him from their own positions.
　　As for Chen’s claim of “the natural as the model of learning，” many later scholars have given their commentary and evaluation. Lu Shiyi 陸世仪 （1611–1672）， for example， said，
　　Chen Xianzhang took the natural as the model of his learning， and his is closest to what Heaven confers， and it is also similar to Zeng Dian’s 曾点 preference in distinction from others （cf. Analects 11：25）. The difference only is that due to the instability of the Heavenly dao， his nature is not the same as Heaven’s， which is represented in the Supreme Ultimate that incorporates the totality of human nature and Heavenly dao.
　　An explanation is to be made in this regard， that “taking the natural as the model of learning” was not a claim made solely by Chen Xianzhang himself， but rather was characteristic of the scholarship of the whole Jiangmen School. This tenet was firmly retained by his disciple Zhang Xu and others. When characterizing the style of Zhang Xu’s scholarship， Chen Xianzhang made this comment：
　　Tingshi’s learning is modeled on nature， disciplined by self-forgetfulness， and aimed at no-desire. He tries to observe the subtlety [of principle] with his own mind to grasp the way in which sages employed theirs. When he makes observations of all things between heaven and earth， the eclipse and brightness of the sun and the moon， the changes of mountains and rivers， the rotation of the seasons， and the transformation of the myriad things， he is extending the possibilities of the self. While doing that， his mind tries to take hold of their pivotal helm and to balance their chances of continuity， so that in dealing with daily affairs he could keep company with the principle indefinitely. 　　Moral Cultivation through Tranquility [67]
　　After its innovative use by Zhou Dunyi 周敦颐 （1017–1073）， the concept of “tranquility” differed systematically from the notions of Buddhism and Daoism， and became an important Neo-Confucian method of cultivation. Because of this， later scholars traced Chen Xianzhang’s ideas to Zhou Dunyi. From the perspective of intellectual history， Chen’s ideas on tranquility were certainly transmitted from the Song and Yuan Neo-Confucian masters of principle， and this is unquestionable. He gave a personal account of his theory， trying to resolve the debates on tranquility and sincerity：
　　When Cheng Yi 程頤 （1033–1107） saw anybody sitting in tranquil meditation， he would marvel at the excellence of his learning. This tranquility， originated by Zhou Dunyi， was transmitted by Cheng’s disciples to masters like Luo Congyan 罗从彦 （1072–1135） and Li Tong 李侗 （1093–1163） who specifically put this method in their instruction and benefited a lot of scholars. In his own time， Zhu Xi was much concerned that practitioners of tranquility might stray into Chan Buddhism， so he chose to speak of sincerity only but said little about tranquil meditation. This is quite like the instructions given by Yichuan in his old age. He did this because he was cautious of minute developments in view of their consequences in the long term. However， scholars have their own measure of judgment. If one could resist the temptation from Buddhism， it might be an easier approach if he stayed tranquil. If one is routinely engaged， this method is especially a cure.
　　Chen Xianzhang’s emphasis on tranquility is motivated by his consideration of the social realities at the time. Scholars， having long lost their moral orientation in their sole pursuit of success in civil examinations， craved profits amid a great commotion and disturbance to principle. Only by tranquil sitting and looking into their mind can they cure their diseases. The “pursuit of inquiry and study” and “honoring virtuous action” are two ways to cultivate a good character; likewise， pursuing tranquility or sincerity require different paths of approach. The tranquility approach aims for the person’s self-modification so as to concentrate spiritual strength and to preserve and nourish the inner mind. The approach of sincerity， in contrast， takes a view to the self-adaptation of the relationship between the cognitive subject and environment， making use of both the subjective and objective， to investigate things and exhaust principles. But in the final analysis， both approaches aim at the same goal and complement each other rather than contradict each other. When Zhu Xi’s doctrine was established as official orthodoxy in the early Ming， keeping sincerity and exhausting principle were taken as the dominant approach， and scholars of the principle （like Xue Xuan） were inclined to engage in studies of a lowly kind and their words and deeds tended to be popular and commonplace. The efforts of keeping sincerity and exhausting principle in everyday life exerted an intangible pressure on the tranquility approach. As tension between them increased， there was a tension inside the school of principle， which was reflected by their differentiation and debates on tranquility and sincerity. When Chen Xianzhang talked of tranquil sitting to everyone he met， he was regarded as challenging the hegemonic discourse of the scholars in favor of sincerity. 　　The fact is， however， that Chen’s real proposal in the name of tranquility was a combination of activity and quietude， but his turn of phrase gave people the impression that he advocated absolute tranquility. He did not give much account of the active side of his theory or balance his quietude with activity. That is why he was prone to misunderstanding. Zhang Xu might have seen this weakness and so he purposefully added a passage in his “Biography [of Chen Xianzhang]，” making it clear that “activity and tranquility work in coordination to give the effect，” and he put it as the fourth phase in the development of Chen’s teachings. In addition， some contemporary students of Chen’s also discussed the issue. For example， Lin Guang explained tranquility in terms of “setting the mind at ease，” by which the mind should be “preserved in tranquility but responded to by action.” He said，
　　The mind of man， when it is put to rest and set in leisure， is capable of judging everything between heaven and earth. In that state， even the myriad things in their commotion could not disturb its operation， and even matters of life and death could not alter its course. A person with his mind in such state would not think so much of benevolence and righteousness as great virtue， how would they take to mind secular fame and wealth？ . . . The crucial point is to keep the mind undisturbed， and that is single-mindedness. When one keeps a single mind before things and affairs happen to him， his mind lies in tranquility and at leisure; when he is engaged in affairs with single-mindedness， his mind is kept care-free while in motion. If one knows only the benefit of tranquil preservation of the mind， but not how to respond to it by action [for balance]， then he has one-sided knowledge of the substance but is ignorant of its function. And that is not the way of Confucian learning.
　　Zhang Xu used the word xu 虛 （vacancy or emptiness） to elucidate the meaning of tranquility in its fundamental sense：
　　After grasping the crucial pivot [of getting a receptive mind]， one could personally experience the dao， benefit from its direction， cope with affairs， and nourish life. With all affairs under heaven， whether big or small， a receptive mind could apply to them all. How fundamental it is for the mind to be open and receptive！ It is the root of knowing heaven and earth， the productive stem of life.
　　Interpretations of such a kind have explicated and extended Chen Xianzhang’s underlying instruction. An active side， hidden behind his statement， is revealed that complements the tranquil character of a literal reading of sitting quietly. 　　However， tranquil sitting is only a starting point of the process， where the tranquil state of mind must be maintained to foster the origin of some development. This origin means the beginning of one’s moral virtue. He said，
　　If one fosters the origin of moral virtue by sitting quietly whereas he seeks the moral principle by consulting books and texts， then the books and texts might as well be swept away， but the origin of moral virtue could never be abandoned. . . . Sweep aside all poetry， essays， books， commentaries， and so on， get them out of my mind to the last remaining bits， and only after this can the origin of moral virtue be fostered and my tranquility of mind be kept.
　　What Chen Xianzhang actually does is to liberate the subjective self from the yoke of an outside world that it is attached to and， in particular， from the artificial burden that it has made and put upon itself. In this way people might emerge as a pure self. This is an advancement of Mencius’s concepts of the beginnings of moral virtue and the nourishment of vital energy， for sitting in tranquil meditation is a necessary process to remove prejudices and misconceptions. By meditative sitting one is expected to be enlightened by Heavenly principle， to reduce and get rid of human desires， and to foster a noble character.
　　Therefore， we may conclude that Chen Xianzhang’s conception of tranquility is a Confucian concept， much different from that of Buddhism and Daoism， and even less subject to the accusation of being “dry wood and dead ashes.” His idea of tranquility is the silent brewing before the seed bursts into life. It is a necessary process to personally exchange wordless messages between the self and Heaven–Earth. The goal of the process is to foster virtue and a noble character， to appreciate and partake in the productive transformation of nature. When one’s subjective self attains unity with Heaven， one will become an exemplary noble person， “having a single mind but replete with the ten-thousand principles， encompassing the myriad things in the subjective self.” This idea laid a metaphysical foundation for the resurrection of the philosophy of the mind. Chinese philosophy broke away from the powerful yoke of Zhu Xi’s rigid doctrine of principle， and opened a fresh path amid the intellectual stagnancy of early Ming scholarship.
　　The Gongfu of Embodied Experience in Any Place
　　and at Any Time [69]
　　Chen Xianzhang’s philosophy takes self-acquisition as essential and the natural as the model of moral cultivation， that is， the gongfu of nourishing the awareness of human life. Such a gongfu relies on the innate faculty of the subject and presents itself spontaneously and naturally in everyday behaviors. It is not a deliberate action motivated by external forces. Like the arising of natural human emotions， embodied experience is instinctively aroused when the mind is inspired. On the other hand， as for the gongfu of self-cultivation， the mind is tranquil of its own nature， undisturbed by winds from all directions. That is why it is said， “It is not vacant when no feelings or emotions are present， and it is not stirred when undergoing the ten-thousand sensations.” Chen Xianzhang said， 　　Some people acquire learning by accumulation while some do not attain it by accumulation. Some learning can be taught with language， but some cannot be conveyed in language. The dao works in its motion when it attains nothingness and is indiscernible; it appears miraculous only when it works wonders near at hand. So it functions only when it is unseen， and it is preserved in ordinary things that take shape. Generally speaking， [factual] learning that is acquired through accumulation can be largely instructed through language; but [intuitive] learning， which cannot be attained by accumulation， cannot be instructed through language. If the learner can know the infinite dao by observing things near at hand， then he accomplishes it as if doing nothing but sitting in tranquility. He is working with the unseen， for he knows the most crucial pivot of things. In dealing with observable things he preserves the dao， for it already dwells in the spiritual self. Therefore， it is easier for those who know the dao than for those who do not.
　　In light of one’s ordinary comprehension， the effects in finding the “fountainhead of moral principle” and its “falling droplets for preservation” must ultimately be made known by virtue of meaning and understanding. In other words， the truth of principle and its observance， though “hardly communicable，” are in need of words in the end. It is far from adequate only to gain an understanding of such knowledge conveyed by imagery in poetic language. To make up for the weakness of such tacit knowledge， the students of Chen Xianzhang gave their exegeses of his idea on the tranquility method from various angles and perspectives. Lin Guang attempted to explain it in terms of substance and function or essence and appearance. He interpreted tranquility as leisure in the mind， which means to remove external burdens from the mind so that as substance the mind rests in leisure and tranquil stillness. Only in this state can it be set in “standby” mode and perform its function in response to external stimulation. Zhang Xu attached special importance to the vacant condition of the mind. Only when it is vacant can it receive and accommodate the myriad things. Therefore， tranquil vacancy should be taken as a prerequisite of learning. He noted that what is called beginning of moral virtue forms the root-origin of the mind， while the original mind is vacant and tranquil in itself and capable of conceptualizing myriads of things. Only if a person rectifies and purifies one’s original mind can one hope to become a sagely king in the world. He Qin maintained that by tranquil sitting one could put the mind to rest to nourish and temper one’s nature and emotions. 　　[This process] helps man to understand the subtle essence of human nature and moral virtue， to grasp the principle of Heaven and social norms. By it one could find the master key to governing the world and the major entry point of learning. As one’s understanding of these deepens， he is said to set foot on his inner moral path.
　　Doing this may provide a connection from the internal to the external world of human life. It may bring one’s sense of clear mind to bear on one’s social practice of virtuous acts， and this training of the inner virtue from a serene， tranquil mind would naturally have an effect upon one’s virtuous conduct outwardly. Li Chengji discussed the tranquility method by introducing his conception of the original mind as restrained and modest in nature， as he said：
　　I have made observation of both ancient and present men of success. Those who achieved such great enterprises as to direct the rise and fall of dynasties， had their minds well bridled; those who gained great fame to mobilize people both above and below， had their minds well reined; Those who exhibited a magnanimous and noble character， their kindness being as broad as the sea and as profound as the oceans， so that they could shape the world with their moral influence， were those who had had a mind enlightened and robust.
　　By exegesis in such poetic language， the followers of Chen’s doctrine came up with various theoretical resources. Some dug inside Confucianism for theoretical support， others borrowed from Buddhist and Daoist explanations. Forged with a mixture of different ingredients of thoughts and beliefs， Chen Xianzhang’s idea on tranquility of the mind was solidly enhanced and cemented. Zhan Ruoshui made the greatest contribution to systematizing Chen’s ideas. Zhan proposed to “perceive the principle of Heaven in whatever one sees and does，” a theory with which he reconciled the tension between the school of principle and the school of the mind， accommodated the positions of Neo-Confucian， Buddhist， and Daoist scholars， and responded to their respective claims. According to him， to obtain the principle of Heaven preached by Zhu Xi， or innate moral knowledge and beginning of moral virtues by scholars of the learning of the mind， requires instant response and cognition by the subject at that very moment and on that very occasion. They must be attended to whenever and wherever they occur. Therefore， one meets with the principles of Heaven and deals with intuitive moral knowledge in whatever one is engaged in， and must do it in that time and at that place. Therefore， he offered the instruction， 　　[The mind is put] in motion at one moment and in stillness at the next [as it deals with things]; it may be stirred by feelings but immediately subsides as the feelings fade; it changes its state in quick response to the occurrence or non-occurrence of events. This method of embodying and recognizing [our inner moral principle] is valid and applicable for all times.
　　Such spontaneous and prompt responsiveness indicates an immediate presence of the mind with the on-going affairs here and now， as if the two beings seamlessly combined and penetratively integrated with each other. The principle of Heaven implies that the principle is a natural endowment of our mind from Heaven. The principle is issued by the mind as it is triggered by the occasion， and it is experienced and recognized as it is occasioned. That is， the mind responds to the occasion of affairs， answers their call， and meets their expectations. And the mind does so by judgment at the right time， to the right degree， not biased， inadequate， or excessive. If one can do this， one gets hold of principle， that is， embodying， experiencing， and recognizing it. Any efforts made for learning cannot be separated， reflexively， from the human act itself as substance. Therefore， by personally experiencing and recognizing the principle of Heaven through daily affairs at hand， one can exhibit and illustrate the presence and unfolding of human effort. Without such closeness to ordinary practical affairs， there will be no principle of Heaven that can meaningfully be manifested. Chen Xianzhang had expressed his approval， before his death， of Zhan Ruoshui’s method to “perceive the principle of Heaven in whatever one sees and does.” He said， “If someone is whipped into doing this in his daily life， he will assuredly obtain the ancients’ wisdom of learning.” In his later years， Zhan Ruoshui invested his efforts in building and elaborating large-scale systems of his philosophy， which was much more ambitious than what Chen Xianzhang had envisioned.
　　Through continual paraphrase and extensive exegesis by his followers， Chen Xianzhang’s ideas on the tranquility method became better defined and took the shape of a theory that could be systematically described by later scholars. In his conception of the mind in its tranquil state of embodied experience， it is nothing like the tranquil silence of a mind that is formed like dead wood， but rather it is alive and kicking， a vivid， direct presentation of the most intimate experience of personal existence. For any individual， such an experiential sense of moral principle is concrete and contextualized， occurring to him or her in the real situation of everyday life scenes. And given that， every single act of moral significance could bud into a bough of strength with the growth of life and give its impetus to life’s creative process. As a person goes through circumstances， tests， and ordeals， life experience will be enriched， and the individual’s adaptability to their social environment will increase as social contact widens. At the same time， the increasing intensity for nourishing and honing one’s moral mind will make its fabric closer woven and more durable. The robustness and toughness of moral life are thus both enhanced. Throughout this process of spontaneous action in everyday life， one’s embodied experience of the moral mind becomes a habit that identifies with the norm of subsistence. It is no longer an endeavor to be imposed on oneself， but a subconscious act， as though one is carried along in the running current of life’s ceaseless stream. Such is the meaning of Mencius when he said， “Let not the mind forget its work， but let there be no assisting the growth of that nature.” One will take the hints of the natural by following one’s natural mind， dealing with one’s duty， and attaining one’s moral accomplishments. Such experience does not seek to know the activities of life from the outside， nor does it objectify the discussion and understanding of things by separating them from the human mind. Rather it is knowing in doing， or understanding through self-involvement. The act speaks the mind， which spontaneously reveals its intent. The principle gained in this way from the mind is the principle of nature. Principle is thus identified with act， and mind is united with things.
　　Bibliography of Cited Translations
　　Legge， James， trans. Analects. http：//ctext.org/analects， accessed November 26， 2020.
　　——. Mencius. http：//ctext.org/mengzi， accessed November 26， 2020.
　　Van Norden， Bryan. Mengzi. Indianapolis/Cambridge： Hackett Publishing Company， 2008.
　　Translated by Wang Keyou