论文部分内容阅读
Abstract：Nowadays becoming bilingual is a way of life. But as for the question of how to learn or acquire a second language effectively is hard to answer， for the process of learning a second language is one of the most important and complex of all human endeavors. In this article， I will present several suggestions on how to improve second language learning or acquisition from the cognitive and affective perspectives on the learners' part as well as the teachers'.
Key words：learners； meaningful；self-concept；motivation
1. Introduction
Becoming bilingual is a way of life. Your whole person is affected as you struggle to reach beyond the confines of your first language and into a new language， a new culture， a new way of thinking， feeling， and acting. Total commitment， total involvement， a total physical， intellectual and emotional response is necessary to successfully send and receive messages in a second language. The process of learning a second language is not an easy thing as we did in acquiring our mother tongue. It is the result of cooperation between learners and teachers， that is to say， learning and teaching is closely related together.
Before coming to answer the question， we should know what learning is and what teaching is and how they interact. According to some traditional definitions， learning is acquiring or getting of knowledge of a subject or a skill by study， experience or instruction. Or it is defined as a relatively permanent change in a behavioral tendency and is the result of reinforced practice. Similarly， teaching， which is implied in the first definition of learning， may be defined as showing or helping someone to learn how to do something， giving instructions， guiding in the study of something， providing with knowledge， causing to know or understand. But now concept has changed. （1）Learning is acquisition or getting. （2）Learning is retention of information or skill. （3）Retention implies storage systems， memory， and cognitive organization. （4）Learning involves active， conscious focus on and acting upon events outside or inside the organism. （5）Learning is relatively permanent but subject to forgetting. （6）Learning involves some form of practice， perhaps reinforced practice.（7）Learning is a change in behavior.
Teaching cannot be defined apart from learning. Nathan Gage noted that “to satisfy the practical demands of education， theories of learning must be stood on their head so as to yield theories of teaching." Teaching is guiding and facilitating learning， enabling the learner to learn， setting the conditions for learning. So teachers' understanding of how the learners learn will determine their philosophy of education， their teaching style， their approach， methods， and classroom techniques.
2. on the learner's part
2.1Learning meaningfully rather than by rote
According to David Ausubel， learning only takes place in the human organism through a meaningful process of relating new events or items to already existing cognitive concepts or propositions. This cognitive theory of learning can be understood by contrasting rote and meaningful learning. In the perspective of rote learning the concept of meaningful learning takes on new significance. Ausubel described rote learning as the process of acquiring material as "discrete and relatively isolated entities that are relatable to cognitive structure only in an arbitrary and verbatim fashion， not permitting the establishment of relationships. That is， rote learning involves the mental storage of items having little or no association with existing cognitive structure.
Meaningful learning， on the other hand， may be described as a process of relating and anchoring new material to relevant established entities in cognitive structure. As new material enters the cognitive field， it interacts with， and is appropriately subsumed under， a more inclusive conceptual system. If we think of cognitive structure as a system of building blocks， then rote learning is the process of acquiring isolated blocks with no particular function in the building of a structure， and therefore with no relationship to other blocks. Meaningful learning is the process whereby blocks become an integral part of already established categories or systematic clusters of blocks.
The distinction between rote and meaningful learning may not at first appear to be important since in either case material can be learned. But the significance of the distinction becomes clear when we consider the relative efficiency of the two kinds of learning in terms of retention， or long-term memory， just as William James pointed out "in mental terms， the more other facts a fact is associated with in the mind， the better possession of it our memory retains".
2.2Constructing self-concept
Self-concept is a global term referring to the amalgamation of all of our perceptions and conceptions about ourselves which give rise to our sense of personal identity. More formally， it has been defined as " the totality of a complex and dynamic system of learned beliefs which each individual holds to be true about his or her personal existence and which gives consistency to his or her personality." Self-concept includes self-image， self-efficacy， and self-esteem， which refers to the evaluation which the individual makes and customarily maintains with regard to himself. It expresses an attitude of approval or disapproval， and indicates the extent to which an individual believes himself to be capable， significant， successful and worthy. In short， self-esteem is a personal judgment of worthiness that is expressed in the attitudes that the individual holds towards himself.
Only the learners have the confidence in themselves， can they learn a second language well? That is to say， a learner with high self-concept has more confidence in himself， then he is confident enough in his learning and careless about the mistakes he makes. In this way， he will be willing to take risk in learning without feeling embarrassed， making full use of all materials around him and seeking every chance to learn that language， especially the spoken language. Take one of my classmates as example， she learned English very late， and there was a gap between her and the rest of the class. But she did not lose heart and held the faith that she can learn English well and she would be the top student in our class some day. Yes，she made it after four years of study.
2.3Reducing the degree of anxiety and inhibition
Anxiety is quite possibly the affective factor that most pervasively obstructs the learning process. It is associated with negative feelings such as uneasiness， frustration， self-doubt， apprehension and tension. Anxiety makes learners nervous and afraid and thus contributes to poor performance；this in turn creates more anxiety and even worse performance. Anxiety wastes energy that should be used for memory and processing on a type of thinking which in no way facilitates the learning.
Making mistakes is implicit in language learning. We made them when we were children learning our first language， and we cannot help making them when we learn a second language as older children or adults. However， as young children， we were not inhibited and thus could participate freely in the learning adventure， taking risks as needed. When we grow older， we become more aware of other' opinions and come the needs to protect our fragile ego， if necessary by avoiding whatever might threaten the self. So anxiety and inhibition are detrimental to acquiring a second language， as learners， we should try our best to reduce the degree of anxiety and inhibition.
3. on the teachers'part
3.1Enhancing the learner's motivation
“You can lead a horse to water， but you cannot make it drink.” Teachers face the problem summed up in this familiar saying. Appropriate curricula and good teaching are necessary but not sufficient for ensuring that students accomplish instructional goals. If the learners minimize their investment of attention and effort， they will not learn much. The degree to which they invest attention and effort depends on their motivation-their willingness to engage in classroom activities and their reasons for doing so.
Motivation may be construed as （1）a state of cognitive and emotional arousal， （2）which leads to a conscious decision to act， （3）which gives rise to a period of sustained intellectual and/or physical effort， （4）in order to attain a previously set goal.
As for how teachers enhance the learners' motivation， we can follow the theory expectancy value. That is to say， the effort people are willing to expend on a task is a product of （1）the degree to which they expect to be able to learn， and （2）the degree to which they value those rewards. Thus， expectancy value theories of motivation imply that teachers need to both help their learners appreciate the value of learning a second language and make sure that the learners can achieve success in learning if they apply reasonable effort. In doing so， teachers should provide a supportive environment for learning， set up meaningful learning objectives and have appropriate level of challenge or difficulty.
3.2Integrating the merits of different teaching methods
Nowadays， here are many teaching methods available， such as the translation method， the direct method， the oral approach， the cognitive approach， the communicative approach， the silent way， the natural approach and suggestopedia. However， the wide variety of method options currently available confuses rather than comforts. Methods appear to be based on very different views of what language is and how a language is learned. Some methods recommend apparently strange and unfamiliar classroom techniques and practices. Others are hard to locate， obscurely written， and difficult to understand. What's worthy noting is that each has its own merits that teachers should hold on in their teaching， rather than stick to only one methods. That is to say， as a good teacher， he or she is a master of taking advantages of all teaching methods in his or her teaching process. In this way， the process of second language acquisition will become easier for the learners.
4.Conclusion
The process of second language acquisition is not an easy thing that we did in acquiring our mother tongue. It needs the efforts of both learners' and teachers'. Besides what I mentioned above， there are still other ways to improve the second language acquisition， such as seeking opportunity to speak with native speakers， watching original films， role playing and so on. Even though there are many researches in this field， we need further study to facilitate the process of second language acquisition， on the learner's part as well as on teacher's part.
References：
［1］Arnold， J. 2000. Affect in Language Learning. Beijing： Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
［2］Brown， H. D. 2001. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. Beijing： Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
［3］David， W. C. 2000. Psychology of Language. Beijing： Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
［4］Freeman， D. L. and M. H. Long. 2000. An Introduction to Second Language Acquisition Research. Beijing： Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
［5］Good， T. L. and J. E. Brophy. 2000. Looking in Classrooms. New York： Wesley Educational Publishers Inc.
［6］Richards， J. C. and T. S. Rodgers.2000. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Beijing： Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
［7］W， Marion and R. L. Burdn. 2000. Psychology for Language Teachers. Beijing： Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Key words：learners； meaningful；self-concept；motivation
1. Introduction
Becoming bilingual is a way of life. Your whole person is affected as you struggle to reach beyond the confines of your first language and into a new language， a new culture， a new way of thinking， feeling， and acting. Total commitment， total involvement， a total physical， intellectual and emotional response is necessary to successfully send and receive messages in a second language. The process of learning a second language is not an easy thing as we did in acquiring our mother tongue. It is the result of cooperation between learners and teachers， that is to say， learning and teaching is closely related together.
Before coming to answer the question， we should know what learning is and what teaching is and how they interact. According to some traditional definitions， learning is acquiring or getting of knowledge of a subject or a skill by study， experience or instruction. Or it is defined as a relatively permanent change in a behavioral tendency and is the result of reinforced practice. Similarly， teaching， which is implied in the first definition of learning， may be defined as showing or helping someone to learn how to do something， giving instructions， guiding in the study of something， providing with knowledge， causing to know or understand. But now concept has changed. （1）Learning is acquisition or getting. （2）Learning is retention of information or skill. （3）Retention implies storage systems， memory， and cognitive organization. （4）Learning involves active， conscious focus on and acting upon events outside or inside the organism. （5）Learning is relatively permanent but subject to forgetting. （6）Learning involves some form of practice， perhaps reinforced practice.（7）Learning is a change in behavior.
Teaching cannot be defined apart from learning. Nathan Gage noted that “to satisfy the practical demands of education， theories of learning must be stood on their head so as to yield theories of teaching." Teaching is guiding and facilitating learning， enabling the learner to learn， setting the conditions for learning. So teachers' understanding of how the learners learn will determine their philosophy of education， their teaching style， their approach， methods， and classroom techniques.
2. on the learner's part
2.1Learning meaningfully rather than by rote
According to David Ausubel， learning only takes place in the human organism through a meaningful process of relating new events or items to already existing cognitive concepts or propositions. This cognitive theory of learning can be understood by contrasting rote and meaningful learning. In the perspective of rote learning the concept of meaningful learning takes on new significance. Ausubel described rote learning as the process of acquiring material as "discrete and relatively isolated entities that are relatable to cognitive structure only in an arbitrary and verbatim fashion， not permitting the establishment of relationships. That is， rote learning involves the mental storage of items having little or no association with existing cognitive structure.
Meaningful learning， on the other hand， may be described as a process of relating and anchoring new material to relevant established entities in cognitive structure. As new material enters the cognitive field， it interacts with， and is appropriately subsumed under， a more inclusive conceptual system. If we think of cognitive structure as a system of building blocks， then rote learning is the process of acquiring isolated blocks with no particular function in the building of a structure， and therefore with no relationship to other blocks. Meaningful learning is the process whereby blocks become an integral part of already established categories or systematic clusters of blocks.
The distinction between rote and meaningful learning may not at first appear to be important since in either case material can be learned. But the significance of the distinction becomes clear when we consider the relative efficiency of the two kinds of learning in terms of retention， or long-term memory， just as William James pointed out "in mental terms， the more other facts a fact is associated with in the mind， the better possession of it our memory retains".
2.2Constructing self-concept
Self-concept is a global term referring to the amalgamation of all of our perceptions and conceptions about ourselves which give rise to our sense of personal identity. More formally， it has been defined as " the totality of a complex and dynamic system of learned beliefs which each individual holds to be true about his or her personal existence and which gives consistency to his or her personality." Self-concept includes self-image， self-efficacy， and self-esteem， which refers to the evaluation which the individual makes and customarily maintains with regard to himself. It expresses an attitude of approval or disapproval， and indicates the extent to which an individual believes himself to be capable， significant， successful and worthy. In short， self-esteem is a personal judgment of worthiness that is expressed in the attitudes that the individual holds towards himself.
Only the learners have the confidence in themselves， can they learn a second language well? That is to say， a learner with high self-concept has more confidence in himself， then he is confident enough in his learning and careless about the mistakes he makes. In this way， he will be willing to take risk in learning without feeling embarrassed， making full use of all materials around him and seeking every chance to learn that language， especially the spoken language. Take one of my classmates as example， she learned English very late， and there was a gap between her and the rest of the class. But she did not lose heart and held the faith that she can learn English well and she would be the top student in our class some day. Yes，she made it after four years of study.
2.3Reducing the degree of anxiety and inhibition
Anxiety is quite possibly the affective factor that most pervasively obstructs the learning process. It is associated with negative feelings such as uneasiness， frustration， self-doubt， apprehension and tension. Anxiety makes learners nervous and afraid and thus contributes to poor performance；this in turn creates more anxiety and even worse performance. Anxiety wastes energy that should be used for memory and processing on a type of thinking which in no way facilitates the learning.
Making mistakes is implicit in language learning. We made them when we were children learning our first language， and we cannot help making them when we learn a second language as older children or adults. However， as young children， we were not inhibited and thus could participate freely in the learning adventure， taking risks as needed. When we grow older， we become more aware of other' opinions and come the needs to protect our fragile ego， if necessary by avoiding whatever might threaten the self. So anxiety and inhibition are detrimental to acquiring a second language， as learners， we should try our best to reduce the degree of anxiety and inhibition.
3. on the teachers'part
3.1Enhancing the learner's motivation
“You can lead a horse to water， but you cannot make it drink.” Teachers face the problem summed up in this familiar saying. Appropriate curricula and good teaching are necessary but not sufficient for ensuring that students accomplish instructional goals. If the learners minimize their investment of attention and effort， they will not learn much. The degree to which they invest attention and effort depends on their motivation-their willingness to engage in classroom activities and their reasons for doing so.
Motivation may be construed as （1）a state of cognitive and emotional arousal， （2）which leads to a conscious decision to act， （3）which gives rise to a period of sustained intellectual and/or physical effort， （4）in order to attain a previously set goal.
As for how teachers enhance the learners' motivation， we can follow the theory expectancy value. That is to say， the effort people are willing to expend on a task is a product of （1）the degree to which they expect to be able to learn， and （2）the degree to which they value those rewards. Thus， expectancy value theories of motivation imply that teachers need to both help their learners appreciate the value of learning a second language and make sure that the learners can achieve success in learning if they apply reasonable effort. In doing so， teachers should provide a supportive environment for learning， set up meaningful learning objectives and have appropriate level of challenge or difficulty.
3.2Integrating the merits of different teaching methods
Nowadays， here are many teaching methods available， such as the translation method， the direct method， the oral approach， the cognitive approach， the communicative approach， the silent way， the natural approach and suggestopedia. However， the wide variety of method options currently available confuses rather than comforts. Methods appear to be based on very different views of what language is and how a language is learned. Some methods recommend apparently strange and unfamiliar classroom techniques and practices. Others are hard to locate， obscurely written， and difficult to understand. What's worthy noting is that each has its own merits that teachers should hold on in their teaching， rather than stick to only one methods. That is to say， as a good teacher， he or she is a master of taking advantages of all teaching methods in his or her teaching process. In this way， the process of second language acquisition will become easier for the learners.
4.Conclusion
The process of second language acquisition is not an easy thing that we did in acquiring our mother tongue. It needs the efforts of both learners' and teachers'. Besides what I mentioned above， there are still other ways to improve the second language acquisition， such as seeking opportunity to speak with native speakers， watching original films， role playing and so on. Even though there are many researches in this field， we need further study to facilitate the process of second language acquisition， on the learner's part as well as on teacher's part.
References：
［1］Arnold， J. 2000. Affect in Language Learning. Beijing： Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
［2］Brown， H. D. 2001. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. Beijing： Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
［3］David， W. C. 2000. Psychology of Language. Beijing： Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
［4］Freeman， D. L. and M. H. Long. 2000. An Introduction to Second Language Acquisition Research. Beijing： Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
［5］Good， T. L. and J. E. Brophy. 2000. Looking in Classrooms. New York： Wesley Educational Publishers Inc.
［6］Richards， J. C. and T. S. Rodgers.2000. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Beijing： Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
［7］W， Marion and R. L. Burdn. 2000. Psychology for Language Teachers. Beijing： Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.