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摘要:本文从英语语篇文体角度探讨了句法结构的选择问题。在句法结构的选择上,我们应遵循晓畅、明晰、节省和有力四条准则,然而意识到英语语法的多种变化及其文体效果,这四条准则并不一定同时遵守,而是对其进行有效的选择运用。
关键词:晓畅准则;明晰准则;节省原则;有力原则
作者简介:任彤(1971-),女,山西太原人,中北大学人文学院,讲师,中北大学人文学院硕士研究生,主要研究方向:翻译理论与实践;张慧琴(1969-),女,山西原平人,中北大学人文学院,教授,文学博士,主要研究方向:翻译理论与实践。(山西 太原 030051)
现代文体学和语篇分析理论认为,语篇中的句子结构要遵循4条准则:晓畅(easy to follow),明晰(clear),节省(economical)和有力(effective)。[1]
但是,在实际应用中,这4条准则不可能同时满足,有时会交织消长。犹如人们开口说话,为了让人听懂,就需提高声音,而讲话的速度就要慢下来(清晰的准则)。但是,我们又不能讲得太慢而浪费时间(节省的准则)。因此,为了把话讲得适中,就必须斟酌第2条和第3条准则的取舍问题。这是口语中的情况。然而,人们对书面语篇中句子结构的选择则更加挑剔。这是因为,一方面书面语作者有暇顾及修改文稿;另一方面读者又没有机会当即做出反应而使作者澄清问题。这样,有时作者就要舍弃节省的准则而保留明晰的准则了。如:
(1)SAM likes all the boy in our class.(口语)
(1a) Not everyone likes all the boys in our class, but Sam does. (书面语)
(1b) Sam likes all the BOYS in our class. (口语)
(1c) Sam has his differences with some of the girls in our class, but he likes allthe boys. (书面语)[2]
例(1)用于口语,要强调Sam,就要在该词上提高声音,而放慢速度。但在书面语中,要强调Sam就不得不用(1a),这样措辞就会增多,舍弃第3条准则而取第2条准则。同样,要强调boys一词,口语用(1b),书面语用(1c)。所以,随着语体或文体的不同,句法结构就要有所变化。下面就英语语篇文体对句法结构的选择分别谈谈上述4条准则在书面语中的运用。
一、晓畅准则
时间支配着我们写作和理解信息的方式。我们不可能在瞬间抓住所有信息说出所有要讲的话。同样,我们也无法把所要写的内容一股脑儿全部搬在纸上。这就有一个按顺序选择的问题。一般来说,从语法角度选择不失为一种有效的顺序选择方式,对于转换选择尤为如此。[3]比如,主动结构和被动结构在语篇中如何选择,孰优孰劣,就要视语篇的文体风格来决定取舍。请看下面一组句子:
(2)The war destroyed many houses in his village.
(2a) Many houses in his village were destroyed by the war.
(2b) Many houses were destroyed in his village.
在书面语篇中,对于以上3句选择哪一种好,我们必须把它们放到语篇中去考察。判断的标准有两条:一要看语篇的文体特点,二要看在上下文中是否流畅。从文体特征来考虑,一般来讲,主动语态强调主观想法和判断,被动语态反映客观事实。(2)所说的是“战争(war)”毁坏了房屋,而不是洪水、地震等自然灾害,这就会使读者痛恨战争发动者的罪行。(2a)表达的是“许多房屋”被战争破坏的事实,说明战争本身的破坏性。(2b)只说明“房屋毁坏”的客观事实,言外之意是:“不得不重建”。
句法选择在上下文中的晓畅性可以从两个方面来讨论。
1.句子长度
语篇是由大小不同的语言单位组成的。一篇文章可以分成若干段落,一个段落又可分为几个层次或语段,语段又是由句子构成的。句子或长或短要按文体功能进行选择。总的来说,句子越长,结构就越复杂;结构越复杂,给予读者的负担就越重,因而也就越能引起读者的重视。反之,一味使用简单句就会使语篇显得单调乏味,令人厭倦。当然,长句和短句都有各自的文体功能。[4]不过,就普通的书面语篇而言,长句和短句,简短句,并列句和复合句应该是兼而有之,交错搭配,才能使文章看上去赏心悦目。阅读以下同一题材的三个语段就可以体会到单一的句子结构和多样化的不同效果。
(5)The old man began to tell us the story of his life. He was fifteen. He ran away to sea. He traveled to South American, China, and Australia. Then he was too old to work. He came to this country to live with relatives. Now he thinks all the time about the “good old days.” he was young then.
这段文字均由单句组成,读来单调乏味,毫无节奏感,不太像是作者满怀深情地讲述一位老人的故事。
(5a)The old man began to tell us the story of his life, and he started with the age of fifteen. He ran away to sea at that age, and he traveled to South America, China, and Australia. He became too old to work, and he came to this country to live with relatives. Now he thinks all the time about the “good old days,” and he was young then.
(5a)的句子都比较长,而且用的都是并列结构。并列结构的文体功能是把两个以上思想内容相关的分句联系在一起,但使用过多也会使人有冗繁拖沓之感,就像老和尚诵经一样平淡乏味。
(5b)The old man began to tell us the story of his life. When he was fifteen,he ran away to sea. He traveled to South America, China, and Australia. Then, he was too old to work, so he came to this country and lived with relatives. Now he thinks all the time about the “good old days” when he was young.
本段文章长、短句搭配,各种句式相间,依时间顺序把事情讲得简洁明白,做到了通顺流畅,读起来有起有伏。这说明,语篇中句子的长短、句法结构要兼容并蓄才能起到良好的效果。
2.从属关系
从属关系(subordination)就是使句中一个意思次于另一个意思的重要手段。将一个意思放在主句中就像给它照上了聚光灯;如果把它放在从属关系分句中,则好像将其置于暗处。比较下面的句子:
(6)(While you keep reading extensively for practical reference), you may have two profound reasons deposited in the innermost recesses of your mind: escape and interpretation.
(6a) (While you have two profound reasons deposited in the innermost recesses of your mind—escape and interpretation), you may keep reading extensively for practical reference.
不难看出:(6a)把光聚在“profound reasons”上,而(6a)把光聚在“practical reference”上。通常,从属句陈述的是众所周知的已知信息,所以,它起一种背景(background)的作用。即使我们把它放在句末,仍能看到这样的效果。与此相反,主句陈述的总是新信息,具有前景(foregrounding)的功能,处于突出的位置,犹如一位主角在舞台的聚光灯下亮相的情景。
另一种背景衬托方式是将一种思想置于非限制性分句或短语中。试比较:
(7)If I read much,I can know many things.(限制性分句)
(7a)If I reading much, I can know many things. (非限制性分句)
(7b)By reading much, I can know many things. (非限制性短语)
(7a)和(7b)中的从属内容要比(7)投射的阴影大而暗,所以更能突出主陈述的内容。然而,并置结构则使并列连词连接的各分句的语义处于同等重要的位置。再比较:
(8)there are dozens of reasons to add to reading, but I think it’s enough to give the two.
(8a)Although there are dozens of reasons to add to reading, I think it’s enough to give the two.
显然,(8)的两个分句的意思等量。(8a)的言外之意是:虽然阅读的理由还有数十种,但都不如我提出的两点重要。[5]
从以上分析我们可以得出一条结论:作为“背景”的从属性衬托方式有轻重等级之分,可用图1表示。
正因为如此,报纸新闻文体大量使用词组或短语,而少用从句。其目的就是在最大的背景下突出报道的新闻内容,如:
(9)The closing days of the run-up to Portugal’s first elections since last year’s coup have been marked by a coming into the open of a breach between the Portugese Roman Catholic Church and the radical leaders of the Armed Forces Movement(AFM) now running the country.[6]
整个语段只有一个句子,其中只用了一个谓语动词marked,其余都是词组或短语。这样就把新闻的主要内容“The closing days of the run-up to Portugal’s first elections…have been marked by a coming into the open of a breach…”摆在前景的位置加以突出。
语篇句法流畅准则还有一项“句尾重心”(end-weight)和“末尾焦点”的方法,因篇幅所限,笔者将另文討论。
二、明晰准则
明晰(clarity)是历来的修辞学和文体学所提倡的一条准则,指在语篇中写出的句子要明白晓畅。从反面讲,就是要避免歧义现象(ambiguities)。句子的歧义有语法错误本身带来的问题,也有表达不清楚造成的语义上的模棱两可。下面一组句子就是将读者引入“迷津”的歧义句。
(10)The new soldiers marched down the road failed to return.
(11)Though John kept on watching the film frightened him.
(12)The woman shrieked at John and his brother started to cry.
在这几个例子中,下划线部分都可能造成误解。例(10)中的marched down the road容易被看作是主句的一部分,实际上它是一个定语从句who were marched down the road(被押解上路的)的省略式。(11)中的the film容易被看作是watching的宾语,但从句义上看,它应是frightened的主语。(12)中的and his brother应该是and连接的第二个并列句的开头,而不是shrieked at的宾语。纠正这种表达混乱的歧义现象并不难,只需在(10)中加连词that或who,在(11)和(12)中加逗号即可。但这样不能达到明晰的效果。
另外一种引起费解的因素是出现在句子中的分裂性词组(split phrase):
(13)Many new classrooms offer opportunities for more children to learn how to read and write which have been built up in my village.
其中,下划线部分组成一个名词性词组,即一个定语从句。像这样的结构是不能分开的。有时,末尾焦点和句尾重心允许这种不连续性:
(14)The time has come for our young people to offer their services for our motherland.
但是,(13)中的分裂结构则毫无道理,它只能增加理解上的困难。为什么我们可以写像(14)这类句子而不能用(13)一类的句子呢?其理由是:在(14)中我们需要牺牲明晰的准则而换取句尾重心的强调性修辞原则,而(13)则没有令人信服的理由。
三、节省准则
节省准则是在不损失语义的前题下省略句子中那些不必要的词语,以求得简明性(conciseness)。[7]例如:
(15)There appear many new houses which have built in my hometown in recent years.
句中的new与recent years意思重复,用了new就没有必要再说recent years,there appear与which have been built属冗繁结构,用其中之一即可。因此,本句可有以下两种表述:
(15a)There appear many new houses in my hometown.
(15b)Many house have been built up in my home-town recently.
中国学生由于受汉语“有”的概念的干扰,初学英语写作的人常常写出这样的句子:
(16)There are my books on the desk.
(17)There are three of my classmates go to the party with me.
这类毛病不仅属于赘言的问题,而且往往出现像(17)一样的语法错误。解决冗繁的办法就是避免像上述例句中的语义重复,省去冗繁词语和结构。语法上把这种精简词语和结构的方法称为“简化”(reduction)。简化的方法有两种。
其一,使用代用形式(pro-forms),如人称代词或其他替代词作指称(reference),避免重复:
(18)My brother enjoys stamp-collecting more than my brother enjoys tennis.(重复)
(18a)My brother enjoys stamp-collecting more than he does tennis.(代用形式)
其二,使用修辞层上讲的省略结构(ellipsis),即省去相邻的上下文中可以根据语法和常识断定其意义的重复用词或结构:
(18b)My brother enjoys stamp-collecting more than tennis.(省略)
在下面一个语段中亦为此:
(19)Another reason why people read extensively is to get themselves well-informed of something; a statesman, of news at home and abroad; a scientist, of intelligence in his field; a salesman, of messages about goods, and so on and so forth.
其中,三个名词+of-phrase中间用逗号隔开,省去了主句中get oneself well-informed,可以用语法知识推断出语义的结构。
代用形式和省略结构既可缩减句子长度和复杂性,又能把上文中的某一部分与上下文连接起来。因此,(18a)中的“he”起回指/前指(anaphora)的作用,它与“my brother”是一种相互指称(co-referential)的关系。(Levinson,1987:85-87)语法上把“my brother”称为代词先行词(antecedent)。在书面英语中,要做到节省,就要遵循“尽量减少词语”的原则,即如果其他成分相同,则“宁省略不替代”,如(18b),或“宁替代不重复”,如(18a)。(Leech,1982:192)但是这两种选择并非适合所有情况,例如:
(20) My villagers must have built up more houses and my villagers must have set up a new school for the Hope Project.(重复)
(20a) My villagers must have built up more houses and they must have set up a new school for the Hope Project.(代用形式+重复)
(20b) My villagers must have built up more houses and set up a new school for the Hope Project.(省略)
从节省准则讲,(20a)和(20b)都可以,但在(20a)中必须重复must have,因为从句法结构讲,英语句子不能把代词和省略结合起来。比如,我们绝对不能说:
(20c) My villagers must have built up more houses and they set up a new school for the Hope Project.
四、有力准则
以上三条准则只说明与交际有关的有效性,而未涉及交际的有力性问题。但是有说服力的交际不仅要充分运用语言的指称功能(referential function),而且要利用语言的各种功能,即意动(conative)功能、表达(expressive)功能、诗韵(poetic)功能,情感(phatic)功能、信息(informational)功能,指示(directive)功能、美学(aesthetic)功能等。(Leech,1981:42;1982:150)它使我们转入文学文体的课题,同时也提醒我们在很普通的语篇中也有文体的艺术感。这就是说,在创造性作品和应用性作品之间没有什么既定的鸿沟。普通语篇中也能体现风格隽永的文学。例如,有表现的重复(expressive repetition)就可以与“尽量缩减”的准则相媲美:
(29) The taste of America is becoming French in its conversation, French in its comforts and French in its discomforts, French in its eating, and French in its dress, French in its manner, and will become French in its art. [8]
这里,French一词7次重复,把美国人在19世纪60—70年代崇洋媚外的风气表现得淋漓尽致。
(30) Joan Brown was guilty of the crime, so Joan Brown would have to pay for it.
从简明原则看,Joan Brown 的二次出现是没有必要的,可以缩减而用he代替。但它在此具有强调的效果,表明“此人只有此人”的意思,更加饶有风趣地提高了高雅变异(elegant variation),可以作为一种避免单调的文体手段。
(31) That fight between Ali and Liston was the most sensational heavy-weight contest since the Dempsey-Twnner match of 1926.
该句中的fight,contest和match指的都是重量级拳击比賽,但用了借代(metonymy)这一修辞格使句子达到了简明流畅的有力效果。
为变异而变异被称之为文体恶习。[9] 这一观点对描述性或解释性语篇中的专有名词和技术性词语无疑是对的。但是在其他体裁的语篇中变异则是一大优点:它能避免过多重复造成的单调乏味和无端转换同义词而产生的人为修饰。请看下列语段:
(32) I have to declare the decision of His Majesty’s Government——and I feel sure it is a decision in which the great Dominions will in due course concur——for we must speak out now at once, without a day’s delay.(1) I have to make the declaration, but can you doubt what our policy will be? (2) We have but one aim and one single irrevocable purpose.(3) We are resolved to destroy Hitler and every vestige of the Nazi regime. (4) From this nothing will turn us. (5) Nothing, (6) We will never parley; we will never negotiate with Hitler or any of his gang. (7) We shall fight him by land; we shall fight him by sea; we shall fight him in the air, until, with God’s help, we have rid the earth of his shadow and liberated its people from his yoke. (8) Any man or state who fights against Nazidom will have our aid.(9) Any man or state who marches with Hitler is our foe…..(10)
这是选自丘吉尔就希特勒入侵苏联发表的演讲中的一个片断,义正词严,铿锵有力。之所以具有强大的说服力,是因为作者调动了各种高雅变异的文体手段。其中除了替代词如decision, declaration, policy和同义词aim与purpose, parley与negotiate外,还有:句子长度与复杂性的变异:长句和复合句的变异,如句(1)、(8)、(10);从属与并列关系的变异,如句(1)、(7);状语类型及位置的变异,如without a day’s delay, from this等;修饰语的变异,如句(3)中的single irrevocable,句(9)中的who引导的定语从句;有表现力的重复及片断句(6);倒装语序句(5);排比与平衡句,如句(7)、(4)、(10);反诘句(2),等等。
综上所述,我们可以得出一条结论:只要我们随时留意英语语篇中的变异,就能充分利用语言表达的有效范围,避免陈规陋习的诱惑。意识到英语语法的多种变化及其文体效果,就能对它们进行有效选择,运用到我们自己创作的语篇中去。
参考文献:
[1]Leech,Geoffrey & Margaret Beuchar,Robert Hoogenraad. English Grammar for Today[M].London:Macmillan Press Ltd,1982.
[2]Herndon,Jeanne H.A Survey of Modern Grammas[M].New York:Holt,Rinehart and Winston,1976.
[3]Randolph Quirk,Sidney Greenbaum,Geoffrey Leech & Jan Svartvik.Grammar of Contemporary English[M].Longman,1972:345-346.
[4]秦秀白.英语文体学入门[M].长沙:湖南教育出版社,1986.
[5]Levinson,Stephen C.Pragmatics[M].Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1987.
[6]李自强.报刊英语[M].北京:外语教学与研究出版社,1992.
[7]丁往道.英语写作手册[M].北京:外语教育与研究出版社,1994.
[8]Bander,Robert G.American English Rhetoric[M].New York:Holt,Rinehart and Winston,1978.
[9]Fowler,H.W. Dictionary of Modern English Usage[M].New York and Oxford:Oxford University Press,1965.
[10]Leech,Geoffrey.Semantics[M].New York:Penguin Books,1981.
[11]Mosback,Gerald & Vivienne Mosback.Practical Faster Reading[M]Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1981.
[12]Randolph Quirk,Sidney Greenbaum,Geoffrey Leech & Jan Svartvik.A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language[M].London &New York:Longman,1985:57-58.A Grammar of Contemporary English[M].Longman,1972:345-346.
(責任编辑:刘辉)
关键词:晓畅准则;明晰准则;节省原则;有力原则
作者简介:任彤(1971-),女,山西太原人,中北大学人文学院,讲师,中北大学人文学院硕士研究生,主要研究方向:翻译理论与实践;张慧琴(1969-),女,山西原平人,中北大学人文学院,教授,文学博士,主要研究方向:翻译理论与实践。(山西 太原 030051)
现代文体学和语篇分析理论认为,语篇中的句子结构要遵循4条准则:晓畅(easy to follow),明晰(clear),节省(economical)和有力(effective)。[1]
但是,在实际应用中,这4条准则不可能同时满足,有时会交织消长。犹如人们开口说话,为了让人听懂,就需提高声音,而讲话的速度就要慢下来(清晰的准则)。但是,我们又不能讲得太慢而浪费时间(节省的准则)。因此,为了把话讲得适中,就必须斟酌第2条和第3条准则的取舍问题。这是口语中的情况。然而,人们对书面语篇中句子结构的选择则更加挑剔。这是因为,一方面书面语作者有暇顾及修改文稿;另一方面读者又没有机会当即做出反应而使作者澄清问题。这样,有时作者就要舍弃节省的准则而保留明晰的准则了。如:
(1)SAM likes all the boy in our class.(口语)
(1a) Not everyone likes all the boys in our class, but Sam does. (书面语)
(1b) Sam likes all the BOYS in our class. (口语)
(1c) Sam has his differences with some of the girls in our class, but he likes allthe boys. (书面语)[2]
例(1)用于口语,要强调Sam,就要在该词上提高声音,而放慢速度。但在书面语中,要强调Sam就不得不用(1a),这样措辞就会增多,舍弃第3条准则而取第2条准则。同样,要强调boys一词,口语用(1b),书面语用(1c)。所以,随着语体或文体的不同,句法结构就要有所变化。下面就英语语篇文体对句法结构的选择分别谈谈上述4条准则在书面语中的运用。
一、晓畅准则
时间支配着我们写作和理解信息的方式。我们不可能在瞬间抓住所有信息说出所有要讲的话。同样,我们也无法把所要写的内容一股脑儿全部搬在纸上。这就有一个按顺序选择的问题。一般来说,从语法角度选择不失为一种有效的顺序选择方式,对于转换选择尤为如此。[3]比如,主动结构和被动结构在语篇中如何选择,孰优孰劣,就要视语篇的文体风格来决定取舍。请看下面一组句子:
(2)The war destroyed many houses in his village.
(2a) Many houses in his village were destroyed by the war.
(2b) Many houses were destroyed in his village.
在书面语篇中,对于以上3句选择哪一种好,我们必须把它们放到语篇中去考察。判断的标准有两条:一要看语篇的文体特点,二要看在上下文中是否流畅。从文体特征来考虑,一般来讲,主动语态强调主观想法和判断,被动语态反映客观事实。(2)所说的是“战争(war)”毁坏了房屋,而不是洪水、地震等自然灾害,这就会使读者痛恨战争发动者的罪行。(2a)表达的是“许多房屋”被战争破坏的事实,说明战争本身的破坏性。(2b)只说明“房屋毁坏”的客观事实,言外之意是:“不得不重建”。
句法选择在上下文中的晓畅性可以从两个方面来讨论。
1.句子长度
语篇是由大小不同的语言单位组成的。一篇文章可以分成若干段落,一个段落又可分为几个层次或语段,语段又是由句子构成的。句子或长或短要按文体功能进行选择。总的来说,句子越长,结构就越复杂;结构越复杂,给予读者的负担就越重,因而也就越能引起读者的重视。反之,一味使用简单句就会使语篇显得单调乏味,令人厭倦。当然,长句和短句都有各自的文体功能。[4]不过,就普通的书面语篇而言,长句和短句,简短句,并列句和复合句应该是兼而有之,交错搭配,才能使文章看上去赏心悦目。阅读以下同一题材的三个语段就可以体会到单一的句子结构和多样化的不同效果。
(5)The old man began to tell us the story of his life. He was fifteen. He ran away to sea. He traveled to South American, China, and Australia. Then he was too old to work. He came to this country to live with relatives. Now he thinks all the time about the “good old days.” he was young then.
这段文字均由单句组成,读来单调乏味,毫无节奏感,不太像是作者满怀深情地讲述一位老人的故事。
(5a)The old man began to tell us the story of his life, and he started with the age of fifteen. He ran away to sea at that age, and he traveled to South America, China, and Australia. He became too old to work, and he came to this country to live with relatives. Now he thinks all the time about the “good old days,” and he was young then.
(5a)的句子都比较长,而且用的都是并列结构。并列结构的文体功能是把两个以上思想内容相关的分句联系在一起,但使用过多也会使人有冗繁拖沓之感,就像老和尚诵经一样平淡乏味。
(5b)The old man began to tell us the story of his life. When he was fifteen,he ran away to sea. He traveled to South America, China, and Australia. Then, he was too old to work, so he came to this country and lived with relatives. Now he thinks all the time about the “good old days” when he was young.
本段文章长、短句搭配,各种句式相间,依时间顺序把事情讲得简洁明白,做到了通顺流畅,读起来有起有伏。这说明,语篇中句子的长短、句法结构要兼容并蓄才能起到良好的效果。
2.从属关系
从属关系(subordination)就是使句中一个意思次于另一个意思的重要手段。将一个意思放在主句中就像给它照上了聚光灯;如果把它放在从属关系分句中,则好像将其置于暗处。比较下面的句子:
(6)(While you keep reading extensively for practical reference), you may have two profound reasons deposited in the innermost recesses of your mind: escape and interpretation.
(6a) (While you have two profound reasons deposited in the innermost recesses of your mind—escape and interpretation), you may keep reading extensively for practical reference.
不难看出:(6a)把光聚在“profound reasons”上,而(6a)把光聚在“practical reference”上。通常,从属句陈述的是众所周知的已知信息,所以,它起一种背景(background)的作用。即使我们把它放在句末,仍能看到这样的效果。与此相反,主句陈述的总是新信息,具有前景(foregrounding)的功能,处于突出的位置,犹如一位主角在舞台的聚光灯下亮相的情景。
另一种背景衬托方式是将一种思想置于非限制性分句或短语中。试比较:
(7)If I read much,I can know many things.(限制性分句)
(7a)If I reading much, I can know many things. (非限制性分句)
(7b)By reading much, I can know many things. (非限制性短语)
(7a)和(7b)中的从属内容要比(7)投射的阴影大而暗,所以更能突出主陈述的内容。然而,并置结构则使并列连词连接的各分句的语义处于同等重要的位置。再比较:
(8)there are dozens of reasons to add to reading, but I think it’s enough to give the two.
(8a)Although there are dozens of reasons to add to reading, I think it’s enough to give the two.
显然,(8)的两个分句的意思等量。(8a)的言外之意是:虽然阅读的理由还有数十种,但都不如我提出的两点重要。[5]
从以上分析我们可以得出一条结论:作为“背景”的从属性衬托方式有轻重等级之分,可用图1表示。
正因为如此,报纸新闻文体大量使用词组或短语,而少用从句。其目的就是在最大的背景下突出报道的新闻内容,如:
(9)The closing days of the run-up to Portugal’s first elections since last year’s coup have been marked by a coming into the open of a breach between the Portugese Roman Catholic Church and the radical leaders of the Armed Forces Movement(AFM) now running the country.[6]
整个语段只有一个句子,其中只用了一个谓语动词marked,其余都是词组或短语。这样就把新闻的主要内容“The closing days of the run-up to Portugal’s first elections…have been marked by a coming into the open of a breach…”摆在前景的位置加以突出。
语篇句法流畅准则还有一项“句尾重心”(end-weight)和“末尾焦点”的方法,因篇幅所限,笔者将另文討论。
二、明晰准则
明晰(clarity)是历来的修辞学和文体学所提倡的一条准则,指在语篇中写出的句子要明白晓畅。从反面讲,就是要避免歧义现象(ambiguities)。句子的歧义有语法错误本身带来的问题,也有表达不清楚造成的语义上的模棱两可。下面一组句子就是将读者引入“迷津”的歧义句。
(10)The new soldiers marched down the road failed to return.
(11)Though John kept on watching the film frightened him.
(12)The woman shrieked at John and his brother started to cry.
在这几个例子中,下划线部分都可能造成误解。例(10)中的marched down the road容易被看作是主句的一部分,实际上它是一个定语从句who were marched down the road(被押解上路的)的省略式。(11)中的the film容易被看作是watching的宾语,但从句义上看,它应是frightened的主语。(12)中的and his brother应该是and连接的第二个并列句的开头,而不是shrieked at的宾语。纠正这种表达混乱的歧义现象并不难,只需在(10)中加连词that或who,在(11)和(12)中加逗号即可。但这样不能达到明晰的效果。
另外一种引起费解的因素是出现在句子中的分裂性词组(split phrase):
(13)Many new classrooms offer opportunities for more children to learn how to read and write which have been built up in my village.
其中,下划线部分组成一个名词性词组,即一个定语从句。像这样的结构是不能分开的。有时,末尾焦点和句尾重心允许这种不连续性:
(14)The time has come for our young people to offer their services for our motherland.
但是,(13)中的分裂结构则毫无道理,它只能增加理解上的困难。为什么我们可以写像(14)这类句子而不能用(13)一类的句子呢?其理由是:在(14)中我们需要牺牲明晰的准则而换取句尾重心的强调性修辞原则,而(13)则没有令人信服的理由。
三、节省准则
节省准则是在不损失语义的前题下省略句子中那些不必要的词语,以求得简明性(conciseness)。[7]例如:
(15)There appear many new houses which have built in my hometown in recent years.
句中的new与recent years意思重复,用了new就没有必要再说recent years,there appear与which have been built属冗繁结构,用其中之一即可。因此,本句可有以下两种表述:
(15a)There appear many new houses in my hometown.
(15b)Many house have been built up in my home-town recently.
中国学生由于受汉语“有”的概念的干扰,初学英语写作的人常常写出这样的句子:
(16)There are my books on the desk.
(17)There are three of my classmates go to the party with me.
这类毛病不仅属于赘言的问题,而且往往出现像(17)一样的语法错误。解决冗繁的办法就是避免像上述例句中的语义重复,省去冗繁词语和结构。语法上把这种精简词语和结构的方法称为“简化”(reduction)。简化的方法有两种。
其一,使用代用形式(pro-forms),如人称代词或其他替代词作指称(reference),避免重复:
(18)My brother enjoys stamp-collecting more than my brother enjoys tennis.(重复)
(18a)My brother enjoys stamp-collecting more than he does tennis.(代用形式)
其二,使用修辞层上讲的省略结构(ellipsis),即省去相邻的上下文中可以根据语法和常识断定其意义的重复用词或结构:
(18b)My brother enjoys stamp-collecting more than tennis.(省略)
在下面一个语段中亦为此:
(19)Another reason why people read extensively is to get themselves well-informed of something; a statesman, of news at home and abroad; a scientist, of intelligence in his field; a salesman, of messages about goods, and so on and so forth.
其中,三个名词+of-phrase中间用逗号隔开,省去了主句中get oneself well-informed,可以用语法知识推断出语义的结构。
代用形式和省略结构既可缩减句子长度和复杂性,又能把上文中的某一部分与上下文连接起来。因此,(18a)中的“he”起回指/前指(anaphora)的作用,它与“my brother”是一种相互指称(co-referential)的关系。(Levinson,1987:85-87)语法上把“my brother”称为代词先行词(antecedent)。在书面英语中,要做到节省,就要遵循“尽量减少词语”的原则,即如果其他成分相同,则“宁省略不替代”,如(18b),或“宁替代不重复”,如(18a)。(Leech,1982:192)但是这两种选择并非适合所有情况,例如:
(20) My villagers must have built up more houses and my villagers must have set up a new school for the Hope Project.(重复)
(20a) My villagers must have built up more houses and they must have set up a new school for the Hope Project.(代用形式+重复)
(20b) My villagers must have built up more houses and set up a new school for the Hope Project.(省略)
从节省准则讲,(20a)和(20b)都可以,但在(20a)中必须重复must have,因为从句法结构讲,英语句子不能把代词和省略结合起来。比如,我们绝对不能说:
(20c) My villagers must have built up more houses and they set up a new school for the Hope Project.
四、有力准则
以上三条准则只说明与交际有关的有效性,而未涉及交际的有力性问题。但是有说服力的交际不仅要充分运用语言的指称功能(referential function),而且要利用语言的各种功能,即意动(conative)功能、表达(expressive)功能、诗韵(poetic)功能,情感(phatic)功能、信息(informational)功能,指示(directive)功能、美学(aesthetic)功能等。(Leech,1981:42;1982:150)它使我们转入文学文体的课题,同时也提醒我们在很普通的语篇中也有文体的艺术感。这就是说,在创造性作品和应用性作品之间没有什么既定的鸿沟。普通语篇中也能体现风格隽永的文学。例如,有表现的重复(expressive repetition)就可以与“尽量缩减”的准则相媲美:
(29) The taste of America is becoming French in its conversation, French in its comforts and French in its discomforts, French in its eating, and French in its dress, French in its manner, and will become French in its art. [8]
这里,French一词7次重复,把美国人在19世纪60—70年代崇洋媚外的风气表现得淋漓尽致。
(30) Joan Brown was guilty of the crime, so Joan Brown would have to pay for it.
从简明原则看,Joan Brown 的二次出现是没有必要的,可以缩减而用he代替。但它在此具有强调的效果,表明“此人只有此人”的意思,更加饶有风趣地提高了高雅变异(elegant variation),可以作为一种避免单调的文体手段。
(31) That fight between Ali and Liston was the most sensational heavy-weight contest since the Dempsey-Twnner match of 1926.
该句中的fight,contest和match指的都是重量级拳击比賽,但用了借代(metonymy)这一修辞格使句子达到了简明流畅的有力效果。
为变异而变异被称之为文体恶习。[9] 这一观点对描述性或解释性语篇中的专有名词和技术性词语无疑是对的。但是在其他体裁的语篇中变异则是一大优点:它能避免过多重复造成的单调乏味和无端转换同义词而产生的人为修饰。请看下列语段:
(32) I have to declare the decision of His Majesty’s Government——and I feel sure it is a decision in which the great Dominions will in due course concur——for we must speak out now at once, without a day’s delay.(1) I have to make the declaration, but can you doubt what our policy will be? (2) We have but one aim and one single irrevocable purpose.(3) We are resolved to destroy Hitler and every vestige of the Nazi regime. (4) From this nothing will turn us. (5) Nothing, (6) We will never parley; we will never negotiate with Hitler or any of his gang. (7) We shall fight him by land; we shall fight him by sea; we shall fight him in the air, until, with God’s help, we have rid the earth of his shadow and liberated its people from his yoke. (8) Any man or state who fights against Nazidom will have our aid.(9) Any man or state who marches with Hitler is our foe…..(10)
这是选自丘吉尔就希特勒入侵苏联发表的演讲中的一个片断,义正词严,铿锵有力。之所以具有强大的说服力,是因为作者调动了各种高雅变异的文体手段。其中除了替代词如decision, declaration, policy和同义词aim与purpose, parley与negotiate外,还有:句子长度与复杂性的变异:长句和复合句的变异,如句(1)、(8)、(10);从属与并列关系的变异,如句(1)、(7);状语类型及位置的变异,如without a day’s delay, from this等;修饰语的变异,如句(3)中的single irrevocable,句(9)中的who引导的定语从句;有表现力的重复及片断句(6);倒装语序句(5);排比与平衡句,如句(7)、(4)、(10);反诘句(2),等等。
综上所述,我们可以得出一条结论:只要我们随时留意英语语篇中的变异,就能充分利用语言表达的有效范围,避免陈规陋习的诱惑。意识到英语语法的多种变化及其文体效果,就能对它们进行有效选择,运用到我们自己创作的语篇中去。
参考文献:
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[2]Herndon,Jeanne H.A Survey of Modern Grammas[M].New York:Holt,Rinehart and Winston,1976.
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[4]秦秀白.英语文体学入门[M].长沙:湖南教育出版社,1986.
[5]Levinson,Stephen C.Pragmatics[M].Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1987.
[6]李自强.报刊英语[M].北京:外语教学与研究出版社,1992.
[7]丁往道.英语写作手册[M].北京:外语教育与研究出版社,1994.
[8]Bander,Robert G.American English Rhetoric[M].New York:Holt,Rinehart and Winston,1978.
[9]Fowler,H.W. Dictionary of Modern English Usage[M].New York and Oxford:Oxford University Press,1965.
[10]Leech,Geoffrey.Semantics[M].New York:Penguin Books,1981.
[11]Mosback,Gerald & Vivienne Mosback.Practical Faster Reading[M]Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1981.
[12]Randolph Quirk,Sidney Greenbaum,Geoffrey Leech & Jan Svartvik.A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language[M].London &New York:Longman,1985:57-58.A Grammar of Contemporary English[M].Longman,1972:345-346.
(責任编辑:刘辉)