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【摘 要】英语完形填空是TEM英语考试的一个基本题型,对考生的英语语篇要求越来越高,其目的是考查学生的英语综合能力,也是学生历来失分最高的一个题型,笔者衔接连贯理论基础上对英语TEM完形填空进行指导,论证此方法的必要性,以期提供一些参考方法。
【关键词】连贯理论;TEM英语考试;完形填空;应试技巧
英语专业四级考试TEM 中,完形填空是一种综合性的测试手段,它根据测试的需要,将一篇短文中的若干单词或短语“掏空”,要求学生从所提供的选项中选出正确答案。这一题型特别能准确地测试出学生的综合运用英语知识的能力,因而只有具备较好的阅读英语语篇理解及归纳判断能力才能适应这一题型,也是TEM 考试中学生经常失分比较多的地方,本文将运用语篇连贯理论分析一下完形填空这一题型,并总结解题步骤与技巧,以期能够给即将参加英语专业四级考试的同学提供一些参考方法。
1 理论基础------语篇衔接连贯理论
语篇不是一连串句子或语段的无序组合,而是一个结构严密、功能明确的语义统一体。黄国文在《语篇分析概要》一书中对于语篇作了以下定义:“语篇通常指一系列连续的话段或句子构成的语言整体。”语篇无论以何种形式出现,都必须合乎语法、语义连贯,包括与外界在语义上和语用上的连贯,也包括语篇内部上的连贯。衔接是语篇特征的重要内容,它体现在语篇的表层结构上。Halliday&Hasan把衔接(cohesion)定义为“存在于语篇中并使之成为语篇的意义间的联系”。认为衔接是一个语义概念,是语义上的一种联系,如果篇章中的某一部分对另一部分的理解起着关键作用,这两部分之间就存在着衔接关系。銜接手段主要包括两种:语法衔接(grammatical cohesion)和词汇衔接(1exical cohesion)。连贯(coherence)是指语篇中的语义的关联,连贯存在于语篇的深层结构中,通过逻辑推理来达到语义连接。连贯的语篇必须具有语篇特征(texture),它所表达的是整体意义。语篇中的各个成分是连贯的,而不是彼此无关的。语篇特征体现在很多方面,衔接就是一个重要内容。TEM.4完形填空的短文体裁不尽相同,涵盖了议论、说明、描写和叙述多种类型,但是却具备了一个重要的共同特征:内部连贯,主题明确,能够准确、有效地再现真实的或想象的物质世界和经验世界(包括人物、事物、经验、事件、感受等)。这在某种程度上也满足了程晓堂(2005)提出的概念连贯的条件:语篇再现的内容有一定的正常性;语篇的整体保持了话题的延续性,语篇按照一定的顺序进行描写。
2 考生在做完形填空测试时出现的问题
(Cloze Test)是目前国内外一种常见的考查考生阅读理解和综合运用所学词汇、句型和语法知识及考生的逻辑推理、分析、对比、联想等能力的综合性测试题型。完形填空测试考查的不仅仅是阅读理解能力,考生还必须具有相应的应用、分析、综合的能力。完形填空在专业四级考试中所占分值不大 (占总分的 (10%) , 时间15min。然而,历年的专业四级考试成绩统计表明:完形填空在各项成绩中得分率最低。在日常教学过程中, 学生对完形填空有一种莫名的 恐慌。面对一篇篇幅不长却满是空白的短文,学生不知从何下手。归纳起来, 学生出现的问题表现在以下三个方面:对语篇的理解不够深入;对词汇搭配的掌握不够; 对语法知识的掌握不够灵活。完型填空能够有效地要求考生必须聚精会神地阅读全文,迫使他们尽可能地利用短文中的信息词、信息句去猜测、推断意思,理解线索,弄清句与句之间的关系、段落与段落之间的联系,从而全面理解整篇文章。为了正确选出答案,考生必须从字里行间寻找能够利用的一切线索,如词汇线索(lexical clues),词法线索(syntactic clues)、社会文化线索(socio-cultural clues)、上、下文线索(contextual clues),进而根据有关线索(信息)进行猜测,作出合理的推断。
3 语篇衔接连贯理论在完形填空中的运用
语法衔接是指利用语法手段使句际和句组之间达到上下文衔接的目的。语法衔接主要有四种形式:照应(Reference)、替代(Substitution)、省略(Ellipsis)和连接(Conjunction)。这些衔接机制在CLOZE中都有体现,应试者者可以进一步利用语法衔接手段获取信息,连句成篇。
以08年专四完形填空为例进行解释。Salt, shells or metals are still used as money in out-of-the-way parts of the world today.
Salt may seem rather a strange (31)____ to use as money, (32)_____ in countries where the food of the people is mainly vegetable, it is often an (33)_____ necessity. Cakes of salt, stamped to show their (34)____, were used as money in some countries until recent (35)_____, and cakes of salt (36)____ buy goods in Borneo and parts of Africa.
Sea shells (37)_____ as money at some time(38)____ another over the greater part of the Old World. These were (39)___ mainly from the beaches of the Maldives Islands in the Indian Ocean, and were traded to India and China. In Africa, shells were traded right across the (40)___ from East to West. Metal, valued by weight, (41)____ coins in many parts of the world. Iron, in lumps, bars or rings, is still used in many countries(42)_____ paper money. It can either be exchanged(43)____ goods, or made into tools, weapons, or ornaments. The early money of China, apart from shells, was of bronze, (44)_____ in flat, round pieces with a hole in the middle, called "cash". The (45)_____ of these are between three thousand and four thousand years old - older than the earliest coins of the eastern Mediterranean.
Nowadays, coins and notes have (46)____ nearly all the more picturesque (47)____ of money, and (48)____ in one or two of the more remote countries people still keep it for future use on ceremonial (49)____ such as weddings and funerals, examples of (50)____ money will soon be found only in museums.
整個文章是一个连贯的语篇,第一段就指出全文的MAIN IDEA: Salt, shells or metals are still used as money in out-of-the-way parts of the world today. 接着就分别叙述SALTS, SHELLS, METALS的特点及历史与现状,最后一段总结全篇,COINS AND NOTES HAVE REPLACED ALL THE MORE PICTURESQUE FORM OF MONEY, although in one or two of the more remote countries people still keep it for future use on ceremonial events.段中用still,but, although 等等实现了语篇的衔接和连贯。其CASH, MONEY, NOTES COINS 等词揭示了文章的连贯性,在解读语篇的过程中,通过探索词汇间的衔接关系,就可以使篇章中各句子的意义相互联系,从而推断语篇的宏观主题,把握语篇的思想。
又如06年专四完形填空There are many superstitions in Britain, but one of the most ( 31 ) held is that it is unlucky to walk under a ladder even if it means (32) the pavement into a busy street! (33) you must pass under a ladder you can (34) bad luck by crossing your fingers and (35) them crossed until you have seen a dog. (36) , you may lick your finger and (37) a cross on the toe of your shoe, and not look again at the shoe until the (38) has dried.
Another common (39) is that it is unlucky to open an umbrella in the house-it will either bring (40) to the person who opened it or to the whole (41). Anyone opening an umbrella in fine weather is (42), as it inevitably brings rain!
The number 13 is said to be unlucky for some, and when the 13th day of the month (43) on a Friday, anyone wishing to avoid a bad event had better stay (44). the worst misfortune that can happen to a person is caused by breaking a mirror, (45) it brings seven years of bad luck! The superstition is supposed to (46) in ancient times, when mirrors were considered to be tools of the gods.
Black cats are generally considered lucky in Britain, even though they are (47) witchcraft.. it is (48) lucky if a black cat crosses your path-although in America the exact opposite belief prevails. Finally, a commonly held superstition is that of touching wood (49) luck. This measure is most often taken if you think you have said something that is tempting fate, such as “my car has never (50) , touch wood?”
语篇中用了大量的连接词 but, even if 等,实现了文章的语篇连贯,语篇中大量采用了词汇衔接手段中的重复和同义词。已知信息中主题词“superstition”重复了三次,对主题理解的关键词“luck”以不同的形式出现了多次,其中包括其原形‘‘luck”、反义词“misfortune”、形容词“lucky”和“unlucky”以及搭配“bad luck”。如果考生能轻松的抓住这一点,对作者的意图和感情表达就能一目了然,且能直接帮助解题。
4 应试技巧与建议
综上,已经对完形填空的特点以及篇章进行了阐释,笔者借助自己教学实际提供一些完型填空方面的应试技巧与建议。第一,教师在讲授阅读理解的时候有意识的分析一下语篇的特点,以及句与句之间的关系,使学生明白句子不是单纯的存在,是连贯的,行文流畅的,使学生有语篇的意识,久而久之遇到完形填空就会自觉地依靠上下文,上下句之间的关系进行合理预测并进行合理作答。第二,教师应该适当拓宽學生的知识面,统观历年考题,完形填空涉及教育、体育、生物、传媒等方面。和阅读理解一样,我们对社会、文化、历史、政治、科普等方面的知识了解的越多,越有助于我们对文章的理解,平时以专题的形式让学生对各种话题进行积累并了解,同时能够丰富学生的词汇量。并掌握动词的及物性和不及物性;注意相近词的辨析;注意不同词类的搭配关系等。第三,适当增加学生对语法知识的熟练程度,有助于让学生们把握文章的结构和语言的准确性。第四,平时的时候注重提高学生的写作水平,平时让学生多背诵一些经典的文章,使学生了解英语语篇的特点,从而提高学生的英语的综合素质和能力。作为学生,应该多练习,多实践,以熟悉和适应这种题型,提高自己的综合素质和能力。
参考文献
[1]De Beaugrmde. R.and Dressier,W.U.Introduction to to Textlinguistics[M].London:Longman.1981.
[2] Halliday,M.A.K.&Hasan,R.Cohesion in English[M].London:Longman,1976:4.
[3]Van Dijk Text and Context: Explorations in the pragmatics of Discourse. London: Longman, 1977.
[4]程晓堂.基于功能语言学的语篇连贯研究[M].北京:外语教学与研究出版社,2005.
[5]黄国文.语篇分析概要[M].长沙:湖南教育出版社,1988.
[6]张德禄.论语篇连贯[J].外语教学与研究,2000(2).
【关键词】连贯理论;TEM英语考试;完形填空;应试技巧
英语专业四级考试TEM 中,完形填空是一种综合性的测试手段,它根据测试的需要,将一篇短文中的若干单词或短语“掏空”,要求学生从所提供的选项中选出正确答案。这一题型特别能准确地测试出学生的综合运用英语知识的能力,因而只有具备较好的阅读英语语篇理解及归纳判断能力才能适应这一题型,也是TEM 考试中学生经常失分比较多的地方,本文将运用语篇连贯理论分析一下完形填空这一题型,并总结解题步骤与技巧,以期能够给即将参加英语专业四级考试的同学提供一些参考方法。
1 理论基础------语篇衔接连贯理论
语篇不是一连串句子或语段的无序组合,而是一个结构严密、功能明确的语义统一体。黄国文在《语篇分析概要》一书中对于语篇作了以下定义:“语篇通常指一系列连续的话段或句子构成的语言整体。”语篇无论以何种形式出现,都必须合乎语法、语义连贯,包括与外界在语义上和语用上的连贯,也包括语篇内部上的连贯。衔接是语篇特征的重要内容,它体现在语篇的表层结构上。Halliday&Hasan把衔接(cohesion)定义为“存在于语篇中并使之成为语篇的意义间的联系”。认为衔接是一个语义概念,是语义上的一种联系,如果篇章中的某一部分对另一部分的理解起着关键作用,这两部分之间就存在着衔接关系。銜接手段主要包括两种:语法衔接(grammatical cohesion)和词汇衔接(1exical cohesion)。连贯(coherence)是指语篇中的语义的关联,连贯存在于语篇的深层结构中,通过逻辑推理来达到语义连接。连贯的语篇必须具有语篇特征(texture),它所表达的是整体意义。语篇中的各个成分是连贯的,而不是彼此无关的。语篇特征体现在很多方面,衔接就是一个重要内容。TEM.4完形填空的短文体裁不尽相同,涵盖了议论、说明、描写和叙述多种类型,但是却具备了一个重要的共同特征:内部连贯,主题明确,能够准确、有效地再现真实的或想象的物质世界和经验世界(包括人物、事物、经验、事件、感受等)。这在某种程度上也满足了程晓堂(2005)提出的概念连贯的条件:语篇再现的内容有一定的正常性;语篇的整体保持了话题的延续性,语篇按照一定的顺序进行描写。
2 考生在做完形填空测试时出现的问题
(Cloze Test)是目前国内外一种常见的考查考生阅读理解和综合运用所学词汇、句型和语法知识及考生的逻辑推理、分析、对比、联想等能力的综合性测试题型。完形填空测试考查的不仅仅是阅读理解能力,考生还必须具有相应的应用、分析、综合的能力。完形填空在专业四级考试中所占分值不大 (占总分的 (10%) , 时间15min。然而,历年的专业四级考试成绩统计表明:完形填空在各项成绩中得分率最低。在日常教学过程中, 学生对完形填空有一种莫名的 恐慌。面对一篇篇幅不长却满是空白的短文,学生不知从何下手。归纳起来, 学生出现的问题表现在以下三个方面:对语篇的理解不够深入;对词汇搭配的掌握不够; 对语法知识的掌握不够灵活。完型填空能够有效地要求考生必须聚精会神地阅读全文,迫使他们尽可能地利用短文中的信息词、信息句去猜测、推断意思,理解线索,弄清句与句之间的关系、段落与段落之间的联系,从而全面理解整篇文章。为了正确选出答案,考生必须从字里行间寻找能够利用的一切线索,如词汇线索(lexical clues),词法线索(syntactic clues)、社会文化线索(socio-cultural clues)、上、下文线索(contextual clues),进而根据有关线索(信息)进行猜测,作出合理的推断。
3 语篇衔接连贯理论在完形填空中的运用
语法衔接是指利用语法手段使句际和句组之间达到上下文衔接的目的。语法衔接主要有四种形式:照应(Reference)、替代(Substitution)、省略(Ellipsis)和连接(Conjunction)。这些衔接机制在CLOZE中都有体现,应试者者可以进一步利用语法衔接手段获取信息,连句成篇。
以08年专四完形填空为例进行解释。Salt, shells or metals are still used as money in out-of-the-way parts of the world today.
Salt may seem rather a strange (31)____ to use as money, (32)_____ in countries where the food of the people is mainly vegetable, it is often an (33)_____ necessity. Cakes of salt, stamped to show their (34)____, were used as money in some countries until recent (35)_____, and cakes of salt (36)____ buy goods in Borneo and parts of Africa.
Sea shells (37)_____ as money at some time(38)____ another over the greater part of the Old World. These were (39)___ mainly from the beaches of the Maldives Islands in the Indian Ocean, and were traded to India and China. In Africa, shells were traded right across the (40)___ from East to West. Metal, valued by weight, (41)____ coins in many parts of the world. Iron, in lumps, bars or rings, is still used in many countries(42)_____ paper money. It can either be exchanged(43)____ goods, or made into tools, weapons, or ornaments. The early money of China, apart from shells, was of bronze, (44)_____ in flat, round pieces with a hole in the middle, called "cash". The (45)_____ of these are between three thousand and four thousand years old - older than the earliest coins of the eastern Mediterranean.
Nowadays, coins and notes have (46)____ nearly all the more picturesque (47)____ of money, and (48)____ in one or two of the more remote countries people still keep it for future use on ceremonial (49)____ such as weddings and funerals, examples of (50)____ money will soon be found only in museums.
整個文章是一个连贯的语篇,第一段就指出全文的MAIN IDEA: Salt, shells or metals are still used as money in out-of-the-way parts of the world today. 接着就分别叙述SALTS, SHELLS, METALS的特点及历史与现状,最后一段总结全篇,COINS AND NOTES HAVE REPLACED ALL THE MORE PICTURESQUE FORM OF MONEY, although in one or two of the more remote countries people still keep it for future use on ceremonial events.段中用still,but, although 等等实现了语篇的衔接和连贯。其CASH, MONEY, NOTES COINS 等词揭示了文章的连贯性,在解读语篇的过程中,通过探索词汇间的衔接关系,就可以使篇章中各句子的意义相互联系,从而推断语篇的宏观主题,把握语篇的思想。
又如06年专四完形填空There are many superstitions in Britain, but one of the most ( 31 ) held is that it is unlucky to walk under a ladder even if it means (32) the pavement into a busy street! (33) you must pass under a ladder you can (34) bad luck by crossing your fingers and (35) them crossed until you have seen a dog. (36) , you may lick your finger and (37) a cross on the toe of your shoe, and not look again at the shoe until the (38) has dried.
Another common (39) is that it is unlucky to open an umbrella in the house-it will either bring (40) to the person who opened it or to the whole (41). Anyone opening an umbrella in fine weather is (42), as it inevitably brings rain!
The number 13 is said to be unlucky for some, and when the 13th day of the month (43) on a Friday, anyone wishing to avoid a bad event had better stay (44). the worst misfortune that can happen to a person is caused by breaking a mirror, (45) it brings seven years of bad luck! The superstition is supposed to (46) in ancient times, when mirrors were considered to be tools of the gods.
Black cats are generally considered lucky in Britain, even though they are (47) witchcraft.. it is (48) lucky if a black cat crosses your path-although in America the exact opposite belief prevails. Finally, a commonly held superstition is that of touching wood (49) luck. This measure is most often taken if you think you have said something that is tempting fate, such as “my car has never (50) , touch wood?”
语篇中用了大量的连接词 but, even if 等,实现了文章的语篇连贯,语篇中大量采用了词汇衔接手段中的重复和同义词。已知信息中主题词“superstition”重复了三次,对主题理解的关键词“luck”以不同的形式出现了多次,其中包括其原形‘‘luck”、反义词“misfortune”、形容词“lucky”和“unlucky”以及搭配“bad luck”。如果考生能轻松的抓住这一点,对作者的意图和感情表达就能一目了然,且能直接帮助解题。
4 应试技巧与建议
综上,已经对完形填空的特点以及篇章进行了阐释,笔者借助自己教学实际提供一些完型填空方面的应试技巧与建议。第一,教师在讲授阅读理解的时候有意识的分析一下语篇的特点,以及句与句之间的关系,使学生明白句子不是单纯的存在,是连贯的,行文流畅的,使学生有语篇的意识,久而久之遇到完形填空就会自觉地依靠上下文,上下句之间的关系进行合理预测并进行合理作答。第二,教师应该适当拓宽學生的知识面,统观历年考题,完形填空涉及教育、体育、生物、传媒等方面。和阅读理解一样,我们对社会、文化、历史、政治、科普等方面的知识了解的越多,越有助于我们对文章的理解,平时以专题的形式让学生对各种话题进行积累并了解,同时能够丰富学生的词汇量。并掌握动词的及物性和不及物性;注意相近词的辨析;注意不同词类的搭配关系等。第三,适当增加学生对语法知识的熟练程度,有助于让学生们把握文章的结构和语言的准确性。第四,平时的时候注重提高学生的写作水平,平时让学生多背诵一些经典的文章,使学生了解英语语篇的特点,从而提高学生的英语的综合素质和能力。作为学生,应该多练习,多实践,以熟悉和适应这种题型,提高自己的综合素质和能力。
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