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Abstract:English is rich in synonyms for historical reasons. In its long history of development, English has taken in a large number of words from other languages, mostly European languages, i.e. French, Latin, Greek, etc. These borrowed words has been assimilated into English and naturalized. Both the native English words and the borrowed words have some unique features, so that synonyms with different sources may be used with different styles in specific contexts, which will generate some implications for the appropriate usage of these vocabulary. A good command of synonyms in English will help learners use words accurately and avoid dull repetition, thus they can create excellent texts and communicate efficiently.
Key Words:English synonyms；borrowed words；native words; features
1.Introduction
Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. (Dai Weidong, 2013) Synonyms can be divided into two categories: absolute synonyms and relative synonyms. We shall define absolute synonyms as words which are mutually substitutable in all contexts without change of normality. This is a very severe requirement, few pairs, if any, qualify. (Alan Cruse, 2013) Only a small number of synonyms can be called absolute synonyms. For instance, “malnutrition” vs. “undernourishment”, and “gorse” vs. “furze”. Most of the synonyms are relative synonyms which share the same or close basic meaning, but have subtle differences. They may differ in one way or another. For instance, it means differently when we say someone is “slender” or “skinny”, “thrifty” or “stingy”. In the context “Little Tom __a toy dog”, “buy” is more appropriate than “purchase”. It is true that English synonyms share the same or similar meaning, but there are subtle differences between these synonyms. They may be dialectal synonyms and stylistic synonyms, or synonyms differ in their emotive meaning, also may be collocational synonyms and semantically different synonyms.
How to use synonyms appropriately is a crucial issue in language leaning. Borrowed words with historical reasons are one of the important sources of English synonyms. Most of the synonyms groups include borrowed words, of which French and Latin are the main contributors. Synonyms with different sources may be used with different styles in specific contexts, which is significant for the proper use of synonyms. Both the native English words and the borrowed words have some unique features, which will have some implications for the appropriate usage of these vocabulary. 2.The Sources of English Synonyms
After the Norman Conquest in 1066, in Britain the French became the ruling class and French became the official language. French was used by the upper class in court, school, and adopted in literature field. English was spoken by the common people at the lower class, and Latin was used for religious purpose. Although English was not used as the written language at that time, it was never totally replaced by French. In the following three hundred years, English absorbed a large number of French words and some Latin words. Consequently, English vocabulary was enriched enormously and it became common that the same or close basic meaning can be expressed by two or three words with different sources. For instance, the three words “rise, mount, ascend” all have the meaning of “moving upward”, so they are relative synonyms. However, they have different origins— “rise” is the native English word, while the second word was borrowed from French, and the third one is borrowed from Latin.
According to the history of English, Early Modern English refers to the English language from 1489 to 1801.During this period, especially the Renaissance, many scholars were enthusiastic about research of classic arts, philosophy, history, politics and literature. (Zhang Yongxian,2014) They were convinced that ancient Rome and Greek cultures can enrich and enhance English language as well as the culture. Those written words are formal and with Latin and Greek origin. Consequently, English absorbed a large number of Latin words as well as Greek words. Most of them were used for academic and specific purposes, such as conclusion, definition, logic, neurology, automation, synthesis,etc.（Wang Wenbin，2002）Many French words were assimilated into English at this period, too. Therefore, increased English vocabulary is one of the significant features of Early Modern English. We often find in English pairs, or triplets of words of different sources bearing more or less the same meaning. They also belong to relative synonyms. For instance, the three words “manly,male,masculine” all can mean “qualities that are considered typical of men, in contrast to women”, but they have different origins. The first one is native English while the rest derived from other languages.
3.The Main Features of the Synonyms
3.1 The Features of These Borrowed Words in Synonym Groups
American linguist Martin Joos distinguishes five stages of formality, namely, (1) intimate, (2) casual, (3) consultative (4) formal (5) frozen. We can alternate within a single discourse between two styles adjacent on this scale. (Dai Weidong, 2013) Based on the historical origins and stylistic differences, many of English synonyms, especially those triplets of synonyms can be generally divided into three styles: popular, formal, and learned. Popular style refers to oral or written language used in informal situations. Formal style refers to oral (formal speech) or written language in significant occasions and formal situations. Learned style means language used in academic activity, official document and legal text. (Wang Wenbin,2002) For Example, these triplets of synonyms are from English, French, Latin resources respectively and are used with different styles, namely, popular, formal and learned: tell/inform/acquaint,outline/represent/adumbrate,fire/flame/conflagration,belly/stomach/abdomen,ask/question/interrogate,weary/fatigued/ exhausted, kingly/royal/regal, and wagon /carriage/vehicle, etc. In most cases, these words from the three dimensions can not be applied interchangeably, for example： (1)He told me he was coming.
(2)This article informed us that Australia had the lowest standard of dental health in the world.
(3)The witness acquainted the police with the mysterious lights that appear nightly in the abandoned house.
In the above examples, “tell” is of popular style, “inform” is of formal style and“acquaint”is of learned style and used in legal documents. They are from English, French, Latin resources respectively. If they are used interchangeably, these sentences will sound awkward.
Analyzed from another perspective, we can find that if the words within a synonymous groups have obvious stylistic flavour, solemn and formal meaning and used as written language, in most cases they belong to borrowed words. For example,
“ask, request, entreat, implore” all have the meaning of “ask someone in order to get an answer, something, information, or a solution, etc”. However, from the following examples, we can see the differences.
(1)Go and ask Tom whether he’s coming tonight.
(2)Mr. Dennis said he had requested access to a telephone.
(3)He entreated me to make another effort.
(4)During this season of giving, I implore our online readers to reach out to those who are struggling and help ensure that children are fed.
In these examples , “ask” is from native English and with the most general meaning. In addition, it is neutral in terms of rhetoric. “Request” derived from French and in most cases used for written language. It is formal and used for polite request or invitation. “Entreat” is also of French origin, and it is used in classical language with an emphasis of being “serious and politely when asking”. The fourth one “ implore” is from Latin, also used in classic language with strong, forceful emotion. Except “ask”, the other 3 words are all borrowed so they are used in a formal style.
Those words with stately grace flavour are also likely to be borrowed words. For example, “room, chamber”, the latter is from French; “take part in, join, participant”, the third one is from Latin; “talk, converse”, the latter is from French; “vale” in “valley, vale” is from French and often used in poems. For example:
I wandered lonely as a cloud / That floats on high o’er vales /and hills.
3.2 The Features of Native Words in Synonym groups
Although English synonym groups include many borrowed words, native words serve as the basic elements. Among these groups, the initial words are most likely to derive from the native language. They have the most broad meaning and are neutral in rhetoric features. For example, “smell, scent, odour, perfume, fragrance”; “answer, reply, respond”; “ask，inquire，demand，question, query”; “choose, select, elect”. In these groups, the initial words all came from the native English. They have the most broad meaning and can replace the other words in each group. Many words in synonym groups are used in colloquial style. For example, “let ” in “allow, permit, let”, “be fond of ” in “like, love, adore, be fond of ”, “come in” in “enter, come in”, and “go on” in “continue, proceed, go on”, etc. Moreover, Native English words are richer in feeling and closer to the natives’ soul. For example, the word “help” which is from native English is more sincere than the word “aid ” with French origin. Another example, “a hearty welcome” which is from native English makes people feel more intimacy than “a cordial reception” with French source.
4.Conclusion
English is rich in synonyms for historical reasons. In its long history of development, English has taken in a large number of words from other languages, mostly European languages, i.e. French, Latin, Greek, etc. These borrowed words has been assimilated into English and naturalized. Thus we frequently see groups of synonyms with different sources. A good knowledge of the historical origins of the synonyms and their main features can help us better interpret and apply English vocabulary. Unlike Chinese, English is a language which favors variety of vocabulary. Using synonyms in texts is also a way of reiteration which contributes to lexical cohesion. A good command of synonyms in English will help learners use words accurately and avoid dull repetition, thus they can create excellent texts and communicate efficiently.
參考文献
[1]张勇先. 英语发展史. 外语教学与研究出版社, 2014.
[2]王文斌.英语同义词和同义词素的三个层面、历史成因及其语体差异[J].四川外语学院学报,2002(05)。
[3]Alan Cruse. Meaning in Language, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press,2014.
[4]戴炜栋.新编简明英语语言学教程，上海外语教育出版社，2013.
Key Words:English synonyms；borrowed words；native words; features
1.Introduction
Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. (Dai Weidong, 2013) Synonyms can be divided into two categories: absolute synonyms and relative synonyms. We shall define absolute synonyms as words which are mutually substitutable in all contexts without change of normality. This is a very severe requirement, few pairs, if any, qualify. (Alan Cruse, 2013) Only a small number of synonyms can be called absolute synonyms. For instance, “malnutrition” vs. “undernourishment”, and “gorse” vs. “furze”. Most of the synonyms are relative synonyms which share the same or close basic meaning, but have subtle differences. They may differ in one way or another. For instance, it means differently when we say someone is “slender” or “skinny”, “thrifty” or “stingy”. In the context “Little Tom __a toy dog”, “buy” is more appropriate than “purchase”. It is true that English synonyms share the same or similar meaning, but there are subtle differences between these synonyms. They may be dialectal synonyms and stylistic synonyms, or synonyms differ in their emotive meaning, also may be collocational synonyms and semantically different synonyms.
How to use synonyms appropriately is a crucial issue in language leaning. Borrowed words with historical reasons are one of the important sources of English synonyms. Most of the synonyms groups include borrowed words, of which French and Latin are the main contributors. Synonyms with different sources may be used with different styles in specific contexts, which is significant for the proper use of synonyms. Both the native English words and the borrowed words have some unique features, which will have some implications for the appropriate usage of these vocabulary. 2.The Sources of English Synonyms
After the Norman Conquest in 1066, in Britain the French became the ruling class and French became the official language. French was used by the upper class in court, school, and adopted in literature field. English was spoken by the common people at the lower class, and Latin was used for religious purpose. Although English was not used as the written language at that time, it was never totally replaced by French. In the following three hundred years, English absorbed a large number of French words and some Latin words. Consequently, English vocabulary was enriched enormously and it became common that the same or close basic meaning can be expressed by two or three words with different sources. For instance, the three words “rise, mount, ascend” all have the meaning of “moving upward”, so they are relative synonyms. However, they have different origins— “rise” is the native English word, while the second word was borrowed from French, and the third one is borrowed from Latin.
According to the history of English, Early Modern English refers to the English language from 1489 to 1801.During this period, especially the Renaissance, many scholars were enthusiastic about research of classic arts, philosophy, history, politics and literature. (Zhang Yongxian,2014) They were convinced that ancient Rome and Greek cultures can enrich and enhance English language as well as the culture. Those written words are formal and with Latin and Greek origin. Consequently, English absorbed a large number of Latin words as well as Greek words. Most of them were used for academic and specific purposes, such as conclusion, definition, logic, neurology, automation, synthesis,etc.（Wang Wenbin，2002）Many French words were assimilated into English at this period, too. Therefore, increased English vocabulary is one of the significant features of Early Modern English. We often find in English pairs, or triplets of words of different sources bearing more or less the same meaning. They also belong to relative synonyms. For instance, the three words “manly,male,masculine” all can mean “qualities that are considered typical of men, in contrast to women”, but they have different origins. The first one is native English while the rest derived from other languages.
3.The Main Features of the Synonyms
3.1 The Features of These Borrowed Words in Synonym Groups
American linguist Martin Joos distinguishes five stages of formality, namely, (1) intimate, (2) casual, (3) consultative (4) formal (5) frozen. We can alternate within a single discourse between two styles adjacent on this scale. (Dai Weidong, 2013) Based on the historical origins and stylistic differences, many of English synonyms, especially those triplets of synonyms can be generally divided into three styles: popular, formal, and learned. Popular style refers to oral or written language used in informal situations. Formal style refers to oral (formal speech) or written language in significant occasions and formal situations. Learned style means language used in academic activity, official document and legal text. (Wang Wenbin,2002) For Example, these triplets of synonyms are from English, French, Latin resources respectively and are used with different styles, namely, popular, formal and learned: tell/inform/acquaint,outline/represent/adumbrate,fire/flame/conflagration,belly/stomach/abdomen,ask/question/interrogate,weary/fatigued/ exhausted, kingly/royal/regal, and wagon /carriage/vehicle, etc. In most cases, these words from the three dimensions can not be applied interchangeably, for example： (1)He told me he was coming.
(2)This article informed us that Australia had the lowest standard of dental health in the world.
(3)The witness acquainted the police with the mysterious lights that appear nightly in the abandoned house.
In the above examples, “tell” is of popular style, “inform” is of formal style and“acquaint”is of learned style and used in legal documents. They are from English, French, Latin resources respectively. If they are used interchangeably, these sentences will sound awkward.
Analyzed from another perspective, we can find that if the words within a synonymous groups have obvious stylistic flavour, solemn and formal meaning and used as written language, in most cases they belong to borrowed words. For example,
“ask, request, entreat, implore” all have the meaning of “ask someone in order to get an answer, something, information, or a solution, etc”. However, from the following examples, we can see the differences.
(1)Go and ask Tom whether he’s coming tonight.
(2)Mr. Dennis said he had requested access to a telephone.
(3)He entreated me to make another effort.
(4)During this season of giving, I implore our online readers to reach out to those who are struggling and help ensure that children are fed.
In these examples , “ask” is from native English and with the most general meaning. In addition, it is neutral in terms of rhetoric. “Request” derived from French and in most cases used for written language. It is formal and used for polite request or invitation. “Entreat” is also of French origin, and it is used in classical language with an emphasis of being “serious and politely when asking”. The fourth one “ implore” is from Latin, also used in classic language with strong, forceful emotion. Except “ask”, the other 3 words are all borrowed so they are used in a formal style.
Those words with stately grace flavour are also likely to be borrowed words. For example, “room, chamber”, the latter is from French; “take part in, join, participant”, the third one is from Latin; “talk, converse”, the latter is from French; “vale” in “valley, vale” is from French and often used in poems. For example:
I wandered lonely as a cloud / That floats on high o’er vales /and hills.
3.2 The Features of Native Words in Synonym groups
Although English synonym groups include many borrowed words, native words serve as the basic elements. Among these groups, the initial words are most likely to derive from the native language. They have the most broad meaning and are neutral in rhetoric features. For example, “smell, scent, odour, perfume, fragrance”; “answer, reply, respond”; “ask，inquire，demand，question, query”; “choose, select, elect”. In these groups, the initial words all came from the native English. They have the most broad meaning and can replace the other words in each group. Many words in synonym groups are used in colloquial style. For example, “let ” in “allow, permit, let”, “be fond of ” in “like, love, adore, be fond of ”, “come in” in “enter, come in”, and “go on” in “continue, proceed, go on”, etc. Moreover, Native English words are richer in feeling and closer to the natives’ soul. For example, the word “help” which is from native English is more sincere than the word “aid ” with French origin. Another example, “a hearty welcome” which is from native English makes people feel more intimacy than “a cordial reception” with French source.
4.Conclusion
English is rich in synonyms for historical reasons. In its long history of development, English has taken in a large number of words from other languages, mostly European languages, i.e. French, Latin, Greek, etc. These borrowed words has been assimilated into English and naturalized. Thus we frequently see groups of synonyms with different sources. A good knowledge of the historical origins of the synonyms and their main features can help us better interpret and apply English vocabulary. Unlike Chinese, English is a language which favors variety of vocabulary. Using synonyms in texts is also a way of reiteration which contributes to lexical cohesion. A good command of synonyms in English will help learners use words accurately and avoid dull repetition, thus they can create excellent texts and communicate efficiently.
參考文献
[1]张勇先. 英语发展史. 外语教学与研究出版社, 2014.
[2]王文斌.英语同义词和同义词素的三个层面、历史成因及其语体差异[J].四川外语学院学报,2002(05)。
[3]Alan Cruse. Meaning in Language, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press,2014.
[4]戴炜栋.新编简明英语语言学教程，上海外语教育出版社，2013.