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Abstract:Language contact refers to the contact of the languages. Language contact may influence the language and lead to the language change. From the logic aspect, language contact is the “reason”, while language change is the “result”. Various ethnic groups communicate and react with each other with language, which cause language contact. Based on the theory of language contact, this paper tries to explore the phenomenon of language contact between Hani and the neighboring Han nationalities from two aspects, namely, the reasons(communication need, and education) andthe influences(bilingualism and borrowing).
Key words: language contact, Hani nationality, Han nationality, reason, influence.
1.Introduction
Linguists have become increasingly aware of the importance of language contact. The famous American linguist and anthropologist Edward Sapir(1921) sets forth a convincing argument that language is “rarely-sufficient”. “languages, like cultures, are rarely sufficient unto themselves. The necessities of intercourse bring the speakers of one language into direct or indirect contact with those of neighboring or culturally dominant languages”.(Sapir, 1921, pp.152-201)
From the perspective of the development of social linguistic theories, the study of languages in contact is regarded significantly as the focus of some of the earliest work in sociolinguistics. The theory that stresses the general importance of social factors of language contact started very early.
Languages don't actually come into contact with each other. It is always the speakers of the languages who are in contact. Their attitudes towards each other will affect the way they speak. So, for those of us who study languages, it is convenient to simply talk about the languages as though they had a life of their own.
When one group is very powerful they may use that power, unintentionally or otherwise, to attempt to eliminate the speakers of another language, or, as is more often the case, to eliminate their speech variety. Differences in economic or political power and prestige almost always put the (speakers of the) less-powerful language at a disadvantage. People may decide to stop speaking it in order to avoid the social stigma of being part of the less-powerful group. Sometimes, however, speakers of such a language resist having their identity (as marked by their language variety) taken away from them and they may react to the pressures to use the more prestigious language by working all the harder to preserve, protect and develop their traditional language of identity.
Language contact is the vital factor to language development and change. Supposing there are language “A” and language “B”, and if they have never come into contact, how could one of them influence the other? Obviously, language contact is the premise of language change. The contact of different languages may influence each other in various degrees and different connotations. Speech differences come to represent social, political and geographic divisions between groups of people. These differences may also reflect differences in economic and political power. While we may react to someone's speech with a positive or negative attitude, we are really reacting to the whole complex of social, economic, and political connotations which we have associated with that speech variety.
Thomason and Kaufman (1988) classify language contact into five types, namely, causal contact, slightly more intense contact, more intense contact, strong cultural pressure, and very strong cultural pressure.
Language contact could have a variety of outcomes. In some cases only a few words are borrowed while in other cases the whole new language may be formed. According to Thomason and Kaufman (1988), the outcomes of language contact are divided into three kinds: contact-induced language change, extreme language mixture and language death.
If speakers of a language want to identify with each other, they may find themselves adjusting their speech to eliminate the more obvious differences in pronunciation or vocabulary. If the speakers don't want to identify with each other, they may emphasize the differences in their speech, particularly if someone from the "outside" is present. Generally, the reasons why people want to associate with each other or not don't have much to do with the language they speak. It has more to do with the status or prestige of one or the other of the groups of people. This is one of the reasons which can explain the language influences between Hnai and Han nationalities. On the other hand, language contact is the basic contents of language variation and language change. There are 26 minorities in Yunnan. Hani ethnic minority is one of them which has the population more than 1,400,000. Hani is one of the typical minorities which has the value to research. As every living language is in a consistent state of change, every language is the product of change and continues to change so long as it is spoken, and languages change at various times, in different regions, in various ways and at various levels, it is necessary for us to explore the phenomenon between Hani and Han nationalities.
The language contact between the Hani nationality and Han nationality made the Hani language change a lot. This study researches how and why does the language contact phenomenon happen between Hani and Han nationalities. Therefore, it is hoped that this study will explore the reasons why does it happen and how does it influence the changes of Hani language, at the same time, be benefit to emphasize the importance of the influence of the language contact, and help to protect the minority languages.
2.Literature Review
Language contact can have a variety of types and there are many different influential opinions on it. Bloomfield (1933) classified language contact into “intimate contact” and “cultural contact”. “Intimate contact” refers to a kind of language contact where two languages are used in the same community, such as in the case of immigration or conquest of one group by another. This kind of contact is represented by the wide spread societal bilingualism, and by the wide variety of functions both languages are intended for. “Cultural contact” refers to a kind of language contact which results from cultural diffusion. It is a kind of contact between languages spoken in different speech areas, with the linguistic contact being associated with diffusion of items of culture or technology from one linguistic group to another. Another relevant statement was made by Valenti Kiparsky(1938) in a comment to Vocsdlo’s thesis Some Observations on Mixed Language. Throughout the 1950s, Haugen, Weinreich, Ferguson, Fishman, Gumperz and others began to construct modern sociolinguistics through their descriptions of language contact situations of various kinds. Among the 1950s’ work, Weinreich’s endeavor in particular was one of the greatest contributions to the field of language contact. Though many studies of language contact and language change have appeared since that time, relatively few of these have addressed any of the important theoretical issues raised by Weinreich. As a pioneer in the study of language contact, Weinreich (1964), in his monograph Languages in Contact, defines language contact as a context where two or more languages are alternatively used. It is obvious that “context” here refers to the focuses of the study in contact linguistics. Here, Weinreich restricts language contact into bilingual environment where face to face contact happens between speakers of languages. Later in 1988, Thomason and Kaufman (1988) provided us with a satisfactory definition- language contact is a setting in which linguistic changes involve the systems of the two languages concerned. Also, T&K (1988) claim that “ The ability of the so-called ‘homogeneous’ languages to receive borrowing depends not on the linguistic structure of the languages, but on politico-social position of the speakers”.
Language contacts have, historically, taken place in large part under conditions of social inequality resulting from wars, conquests, colonialism, slavery, and migrations –forced and otherwise. Relatively benign contacts involving urbanization or trade as a contact motivation are also documented, as are some situations of relative equality (Sorensen 1967, Sankoff 1980). Language contacts have in some times and places been short-lived, with language loss and assimilation, result in the relatively short-term result, whereas other historical situations have produced relative long-term stability and acceptance by the bi- or multilingual population. Historically, many conquered or colonized peoples, or those who have found themselves newly incorporated into a nation state, have felt the linguistic effects of these social changes only very slowly, giving rise to language contacts that have endured over decades, generations, or even centuries.
According to Zhou (2007), language contact can be classified into two layers, namely, the contact of kinsfolk language and the non-kinsfolk language. The contact between Hani language and Han language belongs to kinsfolk language.
Hu (2007) argues that there are two kinds of language contact, namely, direct contact and indirect contact. Both contacts can influence the language.
Xu (2007) defines that the contact of language can lead to two sharp different results: enrich of the language or decline of the language.
Wang and Liu point out that the language contact is the independent variable, while the language change is the depend variable.
3.Brief Introduction to Hani Nationality
Hani is one of the minorities which has a large population, about 1430000. the majority of Hani people in China is nearly distributed in Yunnan. Hani language belongs to Sino-Tibetan language system. There are mainly three dialects in Hani language, namely, Haya dialect, Haobai dialect and Bika dialect.
4.Relating Reasons and influences of the Language Contact between Hani and Han Nationalities.
4.1Relating Reasons
4.1.1 Communication Need
Hani language is vital to Hani nationality’s survival and development. Because of the changes of the environment and the progress of the society, the communication between Hani and neighboring Han becomes necessary and urgent. As Han nationality’s economy develops more quick than Hani’s, Han nationality plays the dominant role in many aspects. In order to communicate with Han nationality and learn the advanced technical skills from Han, Hani people have to learn Han language. At this time, the language contact becomes true, step by step, they learn from each other a lot, and stimulate the development of the language, as well as the whole society.
4.1.2 Education
With the help of Chinese government and development of economy, Hani people, nowadays, have the equal right to get education at school. Most of the Hani people can go to school. When they at schools, they have to communicate with their teachers and Han classmates in Han language, therefore, the language contact occurs. On the other hand, or to some extent, it is a “fashion” if they show the ability that they can speak both Hani and Han languages. Younger generation of Hani people like to communicate with their teachers and the “outsider” in Han language after they have learned the Han language, though they still use Hani language at home, when they talk with their parents or the senior generation.
4.2Influences of Language Contact between Hani and the Neighboring Han Nationality
The linguistic outcomes of language contact are determined in large part by the
history of social relations among populations, including economic, political and
demographic factors.
4.2.1 Bilingualism
Bilingualism is one of the outcomes of language contact, as the definition goes: a speaker of one ethnic group (who) can speak the language of another ethnic group. It is known as that “in addition to the master of one’s own mother tongue, an ethnic group or an individual are/is able to produce one or more languages of other ethnic groups.” (He, 1998, pp.180-184) “Bilingual phenomenon includes two states, namely, healthy state and unhealthy state.” (Xu, 2007, p.17) On healthy state, the two languages complement to each other, and afford the communication functions together. This kind of state is active and good for the communication activities, both languages are in a harmonious relation during the language contact process. The other state is the so called unhealthy state. On this state, the two languages are in a contradictory relation. The two languages compete to each other fiercely, as a result, the more powerful language will replace the less powerful one, and lead to the perish of the less powerful language.
On the other hand, when a common second language is learned and used by a group of people, they often find themselves introducing second-language lexical items into conversation with fellow bilinguals in their original first language. As Han language is more powerful than Hani language, during the language contact process, some of the Hani people try to learn Han language in order to have a good communication with Han people, especially the younger generation of Hani people. Therefore, nowadays, most of the young generation can understand and speak Han language, and they use both Hani and Han languages in their daily life.
4.2.2 Borrowing
Another eye-catching influence of language contact, besides bilingualism, is borrowing, borrowing of words or loanwords. Borrowing, involving the speakers’ importing features from other languages into their native language. As everybody knows, one of the most carefully researched areas in the entire field of languages in contact concerns the borrowing that appear in the everyday discourse of bilinguals. In discussing lexical aspects of languages in contact, it is overwhelmingly clear that the major process involved is borrowing. In the majority of contact situations, borrowing occurs most extensively on the part of minority language speakers from the language of wider communication into the minority language. “Every living language has a greater absorbing function which, in most cases, in reflected in its vocabulary.”(Chen, 1980, p. 285)After the language contact, people will use the “new” words that are not exist in their own language to enrich the language. Major-class content words such as nouns, verbs, and adjectives are the most likely to be borrowed”. Hani absorbs many Han words, most of them are nouns. Such as “電池,电视,电影,录音机,肥皂,洗衣服,电脑,光盘,文化,教育,小学,中学,大学, 工人,农民,干部, 中央,国家,经济,省,县,广告,歌星,春节联欢晚会……” and so on.
Besides the above examples, Han language also influences Hani language at different levels, in other words, Han language, to some extent, becomes the complementary part of Hani language. During the whole language contact process, they “help” each other in their daily life, and burden the communication functions together. As a result, Hani people may use both Hani and Han languages to express themselves clearly, that is to say, they may use both the two languages in one sentence. On the contrary, Han people also may use one or two Hani words in their sentences to show their language ability.
5.Conclusion
The study of language contact can lead to great benefits, both practical and theoretical. Research on its social aspects can lead to insights on group relationships, and how they are shaped by processes of accommodation in some circumstances and by divergence and conflict in others.Understanding of the language contact is of vital importance both to language planning in areas like education, politics, and social welfare and to understanding the ways languages change. On the other hand, research on the linguistic aspects of language contact leads us to insight on the nature of linguistic systems, the mechanisms by which they interact to produce new strategies of communication, the creativity of human beings in adopting and adapting new materials to be reshaped into new manifestations of the human faculty of language.
What is more, language contact is part of the social fabric of everyday life for hundreds of millions of people the world over. As spoken language is subject to constant change and the influence of other speakers, it is necessary to lay emphasis on the language contact.
Contact between people speaking different languages can have a wide variety of outcomes. In some cases only a few words are borrowed; in others, the whole new languages may be formed. The results of such contact differ according to several factors, including the length and intensity of contact between the groups; the types of social, economic, and political relationship between them; the functions which communication between them must serve; and the degree of similarity between the languages they speak. In this paper, just the two outcomes are mentioned, namely, bilingualism and borrowing. Each of the two outcomes affect the language change to a large extent, as most languages have been influenced at one time or another by contact, resulting in varying degrees of transfer of features from one to the other.
In a word, both Hani and Han languages have borrowed a lot of words due to the language contact, especially the Hani language. Only realize the importance of the language contact, can people get more knowledge about the language change, and try to protect the minority languages.
References:
[1]Bloomfield,L. 1933.Language. New York:Holt.
[2]He Junfang, 1998.Research of Bilingualism for China’s Minorities, History and Reality. Beijing: Central Nationality University Press .
[3]Sapir, E. 1921. Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech. New York: Harcourt Brace.
[4]Thomason,S.G & Kaufman, T. 1988. Language Contact,Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley: University of California Press.
[5]Weinreich,U.1964.Language in Contact: Findings and Problems. New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
[6]陳 原,1980,《语言与社会文化》。北京:北京三联出版社.
[7]薛才德,2007,《语言接触与语言比较》。上海:学林出版社.
Key words: language contact, Hani nationality, Han nationality, reason, influence.
1.Introduction
Linguists have become increasingly aware of the importance of language contact. The famous American linguist and anthropologist Edward Sapir(1921) sets forth a convincing argument that language is “rarely-sufficient”. “languages, like cultures, are rarely sufficient unto themselves. The necessities of intercourse bring the speakers of one language into direct or indirect contact with those of neighboring or culturally dominant languages”.(Sapir, 1921, pp.152-201)
From the perspective of the development of social linguistic theories, the study of languages in contact is regarded significantly as the focus of some of the earliest work in sociolinguistics. The theory that stresses the general importance of social factors of language contact started very early.
Languages don't actually come into contact with each other. It is always the speakers of the languages who are in contact. Their attitudes towards each other will affect the way they speak. So, for those of us who study languages, it is convenient to simply talk about the languages as though they had a life of their own.
When one group is very powerful they may use that power, unintentionally or otherwise, to attempt to eliminate the speakers of another language, or, as is more often the case, to eliminate their speech variety. Differences in economic or political power and prestige almost always put the (speakers of the) less-powerful language at a disadvantage. People may decide to stop speaking it in order to avoid the social stigma of being part of the less-powerful group. Sometimes, however, speakers of such a language resist having their identity (as marked by their language variety) taken away from them and they may react to the pressures to use the more prestigious language by working all the harder to preserve, protect and develop their traditional language of identity.
Language contact is the vital factor to language development and change. Supposing there are language “A” and language “B”, and if they have never come into contact, how could one of them influence the other? Obviously, language contact is the premise of language change. The contact of different languages may influence each other in various degrees and different connotations. Speech differences come to represent social, political and geographic divisions between groups of people. These differences may also reflect differences in economic and political power. While we may react to someone's speech with a positive or negative attitude, we are really reacting to the whole complex of social, economic, and political connotations which we have associated with that speech variety.
Thomason and Kaufman (1988) classify language contact into five types, namely, causal contact, slightly more intense contact, more intense contact, strong cultural pressure, and very strong cultural pressure.
Language contact could have a variety of outcomes. In some cases only a few words are borrowed while in other cases the whole new language may be formed. According to Thomason and Kaufman (1988), the outcomes of language contact are divided into three kinds: contact-induced language change, extreme language mixture and language death.
If speakers of a language want to identify with each other, they may find themselves adjusting their speech to eliminate the more obvious differences in pronunciation or vocabulary. If the speakers don't want to identify with each other, they may emphasize the differences in their speech, particularly if someone from the "outside" is present. Generally, the reasons why people want to associate with each other or not don't have much to do with the language they speak. It has more to do with the status or prestige of one or the other of the groups of people. This is one of the reasons which can explain the language influences between Hnai and Han nationalities. On the other hand, language contact is the basic contents of language variation and language change. There are 26 minorities in Yunnan. Hani ethnic minority is one of them which has the population more than 1,400,000. Hani is one of the typical minorities which has the value to research. As every living language is in a consistent state of change, every language is the product of change and continues to change so long as it is spoken, and languages change at various times, in different regions, in various ways and at various levels, it is necessary for us to explore the phenomenon between Hani and Han nationalities.
The language contact between the Hani nationality and Han nationality made the Hani language change a lot. This study researches how and why does the language contact phenomenon happen between Hani and Han nationalities. Therefore, it is hoped that this study will explore the reasons why does it happen and how does it influence the changes of Hani language, at the same time, be benefit to emphasize the importance of the influence of the language contact, and help to protect the minority languages.
2.Literature Review
Language contact can have a variety of types and there are many different influential opinions on it. Bloomfield (1933) classified language contact into “intimate contact” and “cultural contact”. “Intimate contact” refers to a kind of language contact where two languages are used in the same community, such as in the case of immigration or conquest of one group by another. This kind of contact is represented by the wide spread societal bilingualism, and by the wide variety of functions both languages are intended for. “Cultural contact” refers to a kind of language contact which results from cultural diffusion. It is a kind of contact between languages spoken in different speech areas, with the linguistic contact being associated with diffusion of items of culture or technology from one linguistic group to another. Another relevant statement was made by Valenti Kiparsky(1938) in a comment to Vocsdlo’s thesis Some Observations on Mixed Language. Throughout the 1950s, Haugen, Weinreich, Ferguson, Fishman, Gumperz and others began to construct modern sociolinguistics through their descriptions of language contact situations of various kinds. Among the 1950s’ work, Weinreich’s endeavor in particular was one of the greatest contributions to the field of language contact. Though many studies of language contact and language change have appeared since that time, relatively few of these have addressed any of the important theoretical issues raised by Weinreich. As a pioneer in the study of language contact, Weinreich (1964), in his monograph Languages in Contact, defines language contact as a context where two or more languages are alternatively used. It is obvious that “context” here refers to the focuses of the study in contact linguistics. Here, Weinreich restricts language contact into bilingual environment where face to face contact happens between speakers of languages. Later in 1988, Thomason and Kaufman (1988) provided us with a satisfactory definition- language contact is a setting in which linguistic changes involve the systems of the two languages concerned. Also, T&K (1988) claim that “ The ability of the so-called ‘homogeneous’ languages to receive borrowing depends not on the linguistic structure of the languages, but on politico-social position of the speakers”.
Language contacts have, historically, taken place in large part under conditions of social inequality resulting from wars, conquests, colonialism, slavery, and migrations –forced and otherwise. Relatively benign contacts involving urbanization or trade as a contact motivation are also documented, as are some situations of relative equality (Sorensen 1967, Sankoff 1980). Language contacts have in some times and places been short-lived, with language loss and assimilation, result in the relatively short-term result, whereas other historical situations have produced relative long-term stability and acceptance by the bi- or multilingual population. Historically, many conquered or colonized peoples, or those who have found themselves newly incorporated into a nation state, have felt the linguistic effects of these social changes only very slowly, giving rise to language contacts that have endured over decades, generations, or even centuries.
According to Zhou (2007), language contact can be classified into two layers, namely, the contact of kinsfolk language and the non-kinsfolk language. The contact between Hani language and Han language belongs to kinsfolk language.
Hu (2007) argues that there are two kinds of language contact, namely, direct contact and indirect contact. Both contacts can influence the language.
Xu (2007) defines that the contact of language can lead to two sharp different results: enrich of the language or decline of the language.
Wang and Liu point out that the language contact is the independent variable, while the language change is the depend variable.
3.Brief Introduction to Hani Nationality
Hani is one of the minorities which has a large population, about 1430000. the majority of Hani people in China is nearly distributed in Yunnan. Hani language belongs to Sino-Tibetan language system. There are mainly three dialects in Hani language, namely, Haya dialect, Haobai dialect and Bika dialect.
4.Relating Reasons and influences of the Language Contact between Hani and Han Nationalities.
4.1Relating Reasons
4.1.1 Communication Need
Hani language is vital to Hani nationality’s survival and development. Because of the changes of the environment and the progress of the society, the communication between Hani and neighboring Han becomes necessary and urgent. As Han nationality’s economy develops more quick than Hani’s, Han nationality plays the dominant role in many aspects. In order to communicate with Han nationality and learn the advanced technical skills from Han, Hani people have to learn Han language. At this time, the language contact becomes true, step by step, they learn from each other a lot, and stimulate the development of the language, as well as the whole society.
4.1.2 Education
With the help of Chinese government and development of economy, Hani people, nowadays, have the equal right to get education at school. Most of the Hani people can go to school. When they at schools, they have to communicate with their teachers and Han classmates in Han language, therefore, the language contact occurs. On the other hand, or to some extent, it is a “fashion” if they show the ability that they can speak both Hani and Han languages. Younger generation of Hani people like to communicate with their teachers and the “outsider” in Han language after they have learned the Han language, though they still use Hani language at home, when they talk with their parents or the senior generation.
4.2Influences of Language Contact between Hani and the Neighboring Han Nationality
The linguistic outcomes of language contact are determined in large part by the
history of social relations among populations, including economic, political and
demographic factors.
4.2.1 Bilingualism
Bilingualism is one of the outcomes of language contact, as the definition goes: a speaker of one ethnic group (who) can speak the language of another ethnic group. It is known as that “in addition to the master of one’s own mother tongue, an ethnic group or an individual are/is able to produce one or more languages of other ethnic groups.” (He, 1998, pp.180-184) “Bilingual phenomenon includes two states, namely, healthy state and unhealthy state.” (Xu, 2007, p.17) On healthy state, the two languages complement to each other, and afford the communication functions together. This kind of state is active and good for the communication activities, both languages are in a harmonious relation during the language contact process. The other state is the so called unhealthy state. On this state, the two languages are in a contradictory relation. The two languages compete to each other fiercely, as a result, the more powerful language will replace the less powerful one, and lead to the perish of the less powerful language.
On the other hand, when a common second language is learned and used by a group of people, they often find themselves introducing second-language lexical items into conversation with fellow bilinguals in their original first language. As Han language is more powerful than Hani language, during the language contact process, some of the Hani people try to learn Han language in order to have a good communication with Han people, especially the younger generation of Hani people. Therefore, nowadays, most of the young generation can understand and speak Han language, and they use both Hani and Han languages in their daily life.
4.2.2 Borrowing
Another eye-catching influence of language contact, besides bilingualism, is borrowing, borrowing of words or loanwords. Borrowing, involving the speakers’ importing features from other languages into their native language. As everybody knows, one of the most carefully researched areas in the entire field of languages in contact concerns the borrowing that appear in the everyday discourse of bilinguals. In discussing lexical aspects of languages in contact, it is overwhelmingly clear that the major process involved is borrowing. In the majority of contact situations, borrowing occurs most extensively on the part of minority language speakers from the language of wider communication into the minority language. “Every living language has a greater absorbing function which, in most cases, in reflected in its vocabulary.”(Chen, 1980, p. 285)After the language contact, people will use the “new” words that are not exist in their own language to enrich the language. Major-class content words such as nouns, verbs, and adjectives are the most likely to be borrowed”. Hani absorbs many Han words, most of them are nouns. Such as “電池,电视,电影,录音机,肥皂,洗衣服,电脑,光盘,文化,教育,小学,中学,大学, 工人,农民,干部, 中央,国家,经济,省,县,广告,歌星,春节联欢晚会……” and so on.
Besides the above examples, Han language also influences Hani language at different levels, in other words, Han language, to some extent, becomes the complementary part of Hani language. During the whole language contact process, they “help” each other in their daily life, and burden the communication functions together. As a result, Hani people may use both Hani and Han languages to express themselves clearly, that is to say, they may use both the two languages in one sentence. On the contrary, Han people also may use one or two Hani words in their sentences to show their language ability.
5.Conclusion
The study of language contact can lead to great benefits, both practical and theoretical. Research on its social aspects can lead to insights on group relationships, and how they are shaped by processes of accommodation in some circumstances and by divergence and conflict in others.Understanding of the language contact is of vital importance both to language planning in areas like education, politics, and social welfare and to understanding the ways languages change. On the other hand, research on the linguistic aspects of language contact leads us to insight on the nature of linguistic systems, the mechanisms by which they interact to produce new strategies of communication, the creativity of human beings in adopting and adapting new materials to be reshaped into new manifestations of the human faculty of language.
What is more, language contact is part of the social fabric of everyday life for hundreds of millions of people the world over. As spoken language is subject to constant change and the influence of other speakers, it is necessary to lay emphasis on the language contact.
Contact between people speaking different languages can have a wide variety of outcomes. In some cases only a few words are borrowed; in others, the whole new languages may be formed. The results of such contact differ according to several factors, including the length and intensity of contact between the groups; the types of social, economic, and political relationship between them; the functions which communication between them must serve; and the degree of similarity between the languages they speak. In this paper, just the two outcomes are mentioned, namely, bilingualism and borrowing. Each of the two outcomes affect the language change to a large extent, as most languages have been influenced at one time or another by contact, resulting in varying degrees of transfer of features from one to the other.
In a word, both Hani and Han languages have borrowed a lot of words due to the language contact, especially the Hani language. Only realize the importance of the language contact, can people get more knowledge about the language change, and try to protect the minority languages.
References:
[1]Bloomfield,L. 1933.Language. New York:Holt.
[2]He Junfang, 1998.Research of Bilingualism for China’s Minorities, History and Reality. Beijing: Central Nationality University Press .
[3]Sapir, E. 1921. Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech. New York: Harcourt Brace.
[4]Thomason,S.G & Kaufman, T. 1988. Language Contact,Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley: University of California Press.
[5]Weinreich,U.1964.Language in Contact: Findings and Problems. New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
[6]陳 原,1980,《语言与社会文化》。北京:北京三联出版社.
[7]薛才德,2007,《语言接触与语言比较》。上海:学林出版社.