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In language teaching, we are always puzzled by one question: why learners achieve different output levels when everything else remains same? To answer this, researchers have begun to pay more attention to the study of individual differences since the 1970’s. Their research interest has shifted from teacher’s teaching to students’ learning. Many studies thus have been taken from the students’ perspective. The factors concerning individual differences generally contain age, sex, language, aptitude, cognitive style, personality, learning strategies, motivation and attitude.
In this article, I focus on the study of learning strategies and ways on how to develop learning strategies and ways on how to develop learning strategies in middle school English teaching.
1. Definition of learning strategies
The concept of “strategies” is a somehow fuzzy one. Stern(1983), for example, thinks that strategy is best reserved for general tendencies or overall characteristics of the approach employed by the language learner, leaving techniques as the term to refer to particular forms ofobservable learning behavior. Weinstein and Mayer(1986) define it as the behavior and thought that the learner engages in during learning that are intended to influence the learners encoding process. Chamot(1987) views learning strategies as techniques, approaches or deliberate action that students take in order to facilitate the learning, recall of both linguistic and content area information. Rubin(1987) regards them as strategies which constructs and affects learning directly. Oxford(1989) refers to learning strategies as “behaviors or actions which learners use to make language learning more successful, self-directed and enjoyable”. Though researchers cannot agree with each other on the definition of learning strategies, one thing is certain, that is, they are used to facilitate learning.
2. Classification of Learning strategies
The study of learning strategies has grown out of attempt to characterizing good language learners (Rubin, 1975); Nainman et al, 1975 ). It was hoped that if we tracked down the strategies used by good students, we could train less successful students and thus improve their learning. Researcher first identified “good language learners”, and then interviewed or/and asked to complete a written questionnaire. Later, attempts were made to classify the strategies into general categories.
Rubin(1981) as well as Oxford(1990) classified the strategies into two primary groups: direct and indirect strategies, the former referring to those directly affecting learning and the latter consist of those contributing indirectly to learning.
O’Malley and Chamot(1990) provided a broader taxonomy based on the findings of cognitive psychology. They considered learning strategies as cognitive skills. In their framework, three major strategies are distinguished, depending on the level or type of processing involved. They are meta-cognitive strategies are higher order executive skills that may entail planning for, monitoring or evaluating the success of a learning activity. Cognitive strategies operate directly on incoming information, manipulating it in ways that enhance learning. Social/affective strategies represent a broad grouping that involves either interaction with another person of ideational control over affect. Meta-cognition is considered as the most important category of the three.
Of all the classification, O’Malley and Chamot’s is the one most reasonable and comprehensive because the learning strategies are concerned with conceptual processes that can be described in Aderson’s cognitive theory.(Chen,2002)
3. Learning strategies and good learners
Earlier research centered on the study of good language learners. Researcher first identified “good language learners”, and then interviewed or/and ask to complete a written questionnaire. Good language learners, according to Rubin(1975), are ready to guess meaning; good language learners try to express their ideas: they are not afraid of making mistakes; they pay attention to language forms; they use every chance to practice; they monitor their production when talking with others; they pay attention to the meanings conveyed by language. Naiman(1978), on the basis of 34 interviews with successful language learners, identified five major strategies are: 1) Good language learners actively involve themselves in language learning task; 2) Good language learners develop of exploit an awareness of language as a system; 3) Good language learners develop and exploit an awareness of languageas means of communication(i.e. conveying and receiving message ) and interaction(i.e. behaving a culturally appropriate manner); 4) They realized initially or with time that they must cope with affective demands made upon them by language learning and succeed in doing so;5) They monitor the language they are acquiring by testing their inferences(guesses), by looking at needed adjustments as they learn new materials or by asking informants where they think corrections are needed. Though conducted separately and describe differently, the two researches share some similarities in findings.
4. Learning strategies and teaching
Nowadays, with the development of society, we are more and more aware that it is impossible to teach everything students need in their life. Knowledge become “out-of -date” so quickly that what we teach today may become useless tomorrow. Thus the goal of teaching should shift from “teach what to learn” to “teach how to learn”. Viewed from this point, the teaching of strategies is of great significance.
Then, how to develop students’ learning strategies in English teaching? There are several suggestions as follows:
a) Teachers may integrate strategies into everyday class teaching. They can start with established course materials and then determine which strategies insert and where. Or they can start with a set of strategies that they wish to focus on and design activities around them. They can also insert strategies spontaneously into the lessons whenever it seems appropriate. For example, O’Malley and Chamot’s classification, repetition is one kind of cognitive strategies. Teachers may ask students to repeat what they hear from the tape or from their teacher. Such repetition can be both overt practice and silent rehearsal. If students have difficulty memorizing the meaning of a word, like “run”, we teachers can teach them to relate the word to physical actions. During class hour, teachers can introduce note-taking strategy by asking students to write down the main idea, important point, outline, or summary of information presented orally or in writing.
b) Peer tutoring is another way to develop learning strategies among students. We can invite students to introduce their learning strategies to other members of the class. Students are encouraged to exchange their strategies using information. In such kind of meeting, it is important to make sure the students play the major role. Students who are of higher grades may also be invited to attend these meetings. The less proficient students can benefit from the language skills of the more advanced students, and the advanced students also tend to grow more confident in such practice.
c) Awareness training by lecture and discussion has been proved effectively, too. Such training usually provide apart from regular language classroom instruction. Students become aware of and familiar with the general idea of language learning strategies and the way such strategies can help them accomplish various language tasks. For example, teachers may give talk to once a month to group of students. The presentations may concern various aspects of strategy use, including topics such as paying attention, vocabulary learning, speaking, writing and reading. The focus should be highly practical so that if the topic were on vocabulary, students are given tips on how to create mnemonic devices for remembering new words.
d) Since meta-cognitive strategies also play important role in language learning, teachers should also develop students’ awareness towards their learning process and learning achievement. To some degree, meta-cognitive strategies are more important because meta-cognition is in charge of cognition. For this purpose, teachers may ask students to write summary on their own studies, especially after a month’ or a week’s study. Such review may help them notice their progress and their shortcomings, how they can learn better, why they failed in certain task etc. It is hoped that by and by students will learn to monitor their own study. This is an important step towards “learning how to learn”.
e) As for the developing of social/affective strategies, teachers should encourage cooperate among students and also encourage questions of for classification.
The above-mentioned techniques, of course, do not exhaust the ways on strategy development. With the reform on education, such practice would be of great significance.
In this article, we exam the definition and classification of learning strategies, We know the study of learning strategies and good language learners. We explore how to develop strategies in our teaching. What I want to say is not that learning strategies can solve everything. But with a focus on learning strategies in teaching, we are surely closer to the goal of education, which is to train students to learn how to learn.
Reference
[1]Cohen, A.D.1999. Strategies in Learning and Using a Second Language. New York: Wesley Longman Inc
[2]Ellis, R. 1997. The study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford University Press.
[3]Ur, P. 1996. A course In Language Teaching: Practice and Theory. Cambridge University Press.
In this article, I focus on the study of learning strategies and ways on how to develop learning strategies and ways on how to develop learning strategies in middle school English teaching.
1. Definition of learning strategies
The concept of “strategies” is a somehow fuzzy one. Stern(1983), for example, thinks that strategy is best reserved for general tendencies or overall characteristics of the approach employed by the language learner, leaving techniques as the term to refer to particular forms ofobservable learning behavior. Weinstein and Mayer(1986) define it as the behavior and thought that the learner engages in during learning that are intended to influence the learners encoding process. Chamot(1987) views learning strategies as techniques, approaches or deliberate action that students take in order to facilitate the learning, recall of both linguistic and content area information. Rubin(1987) regards them as strategies which constructs and affects learning directly. Oxford(1989) refers to learning strategies as “behaviors or actions which learners use to make language learning more successful, self-directed and enjoyable”. Though researchers cannot agree with each other on the definition of learning strategies, one thing is certain, that is, they are used to facilitate learning.
2. Classification of Learning strategies
The study of learning strategies has grown out of attempt to characterizing good language learners (Rubin, 1975); Nainman et al, 1975 ). It was hoped that if we tracked down the strategies used by good students, we could train less successful students and thus improve their learning. Researcher first identified “good language learners”, and then interviewed or/and asked to complete a written questionnaire. Later, attempts were made to classify the strategies into general categories.
Rubin(1981) as well as Oxford(1990) classified the strategies into two primary groups: direct and indirect strategies, the former referring to those directly affecting learning and the latter consist of those contributing indirectly to learning.
O’Malley and Chamot(1990) provided a broader taxonomy based on the findings of cognitive psychology. They considered learning strategies as cognitive skills. In their framework, three major strategies are distinguished, depending on the level or type of processing involved. They are meta-cognitive strategies are higher order executive skills that may entail planning for, monitoring or evaluating the success of a learning activity. Cognitive strategies operate directly on incoming information, manipulating it in ways that enhance learning. Social/affective strategies represent a broad grouping that involves either interaction with another person of ideational control over affect. Meta-cognition is considered as the most important category of the three.
Of all the classification, O’Malley and Chamot’s is the one most reasonable and comprehensive because the learning strategies are concerned with conceptual processes that can be described in Aderson’s cognitive theory.(Chen,2002)
3. Learning strategies and good learners
Earlier research centered on the study of good language learners. Researcher first identified “good language learners”, and then interviewed or/and ask to complete a written questionnaire. Good language learners, according to Rubin(1975), are ready to guess meaning; good language learners try to express their ideas: they are not afraid of making mistakes; they pay attention to language forms; they use every chance to practice; they monitor their production when talking with others; they pay attention to the meanings conveyed by language. Naiman(1978), on the basis of 34 interviews with successful language learners, identified five major strategies are: 1) Good language learners actively involve themselves in language learning task; 2) Good language learners develop of exploit an awareness of language as a system; 3) Good language learners develop and exploit an awareness of languageas means of communication(i.e. conveying and receiving message ) and interaction(i.e. behaving a culturally appropriate manner); 4) They realized initially or with time that they must cope with affective demands made upon them by language learning and succeed in doing so;5) They monitor the language they are acquiring by testing their inferences(guesses), by looking at needed adjustments as they learn new materials or by asking informants where they think corrections are needed. Though conducted separately and describe differently, the two researches share some similarities in findings.
4. Learning strategies and teaching
Nowadays, with the development of society, we are more and more aware that it is impossible to teach everything students need in their life. Knowledge become “out-of -date” so quickly that what we teach today may become useless tomorrow. Thus the goal of teaching should shift from “teach what to learn” to “teach how to learn”. Viewed from this point, the teaching of strategies is of great significance.
Then, how to develop students’ learning strategies in English teaching? There are several suggestions as follows:
a) Teachers may integrate strategies into everyday class teaching. They can start with established course materials and then determine which strategies insert and where. Or they can start with a set of strategies that they wish to focus on and design activities around them. They can also insert strategies spontaneously into the lessons whenever it seems appropriate. For example, O’Malley and Chamot’s classification, repetition is one kind of cognitive strategies. Teachers may ask students to repeat what they hear from the tape or from their teacher. Such repetition can be both overt practice and silent rehearsal. If students have difficulty memorizing the meaning of a word, like “run”, we teachers can teach them to relate the word to physical actions. During class hour, teachers can introduce note-taking strategy by asking students to write down the main idea, important point, outline, or summary of information presented orally or in writing.
b) Peer tutoring is another way to develop learning strategies among students. We can invite students to introduce their learning strategies to other members of the class. Students are encouraged to exchange their strategies using information. In such kind of meeting, it is important to make sure the students play the major role. Students who are of higher grades may also be invited to attend these meetings. The less proficient students can benefit from the language skills of the more advanced students, and the advanced students also tend to grow more confident in such practice.
c) Awareness training by lecture and discussion has been proved effectively, too. Such training usually provide apart from regular language classroom instruction. Students become aware of and familiar with the general idea of language learning strategies and the way such strategies can help them accomplish various language tasks. For example, teachers may give talk to once a month to group of students. The presentations may concern various aspects of strategy use, including topics such as paying attention, vocabulary learning, speaking, writing and reading. The focus should be highly practical so that if the topic were on vocabulary, students are given tips on how to create mnemonic devices for remembering new words.
d) Since meta-cognitive strategies also play important role in language learning, teachers should also develop students’ awareness towards their learning process and learning achievement. To some degree, meta-cognitive strategies are more important because meta-cognition is in charge of cognition. For this purpose, teachers may ask students to write summary on their own studies, especially after a month’ or a week’s study. Such review may help them notice their progress and their shortcomings, how they can learn better, why they failed in certain task etc. It is hoped that by and by students will learn to monitor their own study. This is an important step towards “learning how to learn”.
e) As for the developing of social/affective strategies, teachers should encourage cooperate among students and also encourage questions of for classification.
The above-mentioned techniques, of course, do not exhaust the ways on strategy development. With the reform on education, such practice would be of great significance.
In this article, we exam the definition and classification of learning strategies, We know the study of learning strategies and good language learners. We explore how to develop strategies in our teaching. What I want to say is not that learning strategies can solve everything. But with a focus on learning strategies in teaching, we are surely closer to the goal of education, which is to train students to learn how to learn.
Reference
[1]Cohen, A.D.1999. Strategies in Learning and Using a Second Language. New York: Wesley Longman Inc
[2]Ellis, R. 1997. The study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford University Press.
[3]Ur, P. 1996. A course In Language Teaching: Practice and Theory. Cambridge University Press.