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Abstract: This paper takes field-dependence/ independence as a breakthrough, the main dimension of cognitive styles, and makes a discussion on the relationship between field-dependence/ independence and foreign language teaching and learning in terms of the features of field-dependence/ independence respectively. The differences of individual cognitive styles are important in foreign language teaching. By distinguishing field-dependence from field-independence, in order to improve the teaching quality, teachers should adapt correct teaching methods to different learners and bring all kinds of advantages into full play.
Key words: cognitive style; field-dependence; field-independence; foreign language teaching and learning
Introduction
Second language researchers have examined particular learner traits, such as cognitive style to find out their relationship to progress in foreign language leaning and teaching. Based on a brief account of the theory and practice of field-dependence/independence, this paper attempts to analyze the relationship between cognitive style and foreign language teaching and learning. Psychological literature indicates that a field-independent person possesses enhanced cognitive restructuring abilities, while a field-dependent individual is likely to possess well-developed interpersonal skills. It was hypothesized that field independence would be related to the acquisition of linguistic competence, and that field dependence would be related to the acquisition of communicative competence. In teaching practice, teachers should try to learn the difference of individuals and apply various kinds of teaching methods to different learners. At the same time, the language skills, listening and speaking, reading and writing should be given equal importance and be taught in different ways.
I. Brief introduction of cognitive style and field-dependence/ independence
1. Cognitive style
This term was initiated by Allport in 1937. The way we learn things in general and the particular attack we make on a problem seem to hinge on a rather amorphous link between personality and cognition. This link is referred to as cognitive style. In other words it relates to one’s habitual attitude and manner in the course of perception, memorization, thinking and problem-solving.
The research on cognitive style started from the forties of twenty century, prevailed at the beginning of seventies and then declined gradually. However, since we had entered nineties, the research on cognitive style has been drawing people’s attention once again and becoming increasingly significant in foreign language teaching area. From psychologists and linguists points of view, to get to understand learners’ cognitive style can provide relative information about their learning style, for instance, the ways of thinking when fulfill certain kinds of tasks. In response to it, teacher can adapt teaching methods to learners’ ways of thinking.
As foreign language teachers, when faced with different learning tasks and environment, it is exceedingly important to identify learners’ cognitive styles. It will help teachers to bring learner’s potential into full play and guide learners on the right track of learning strategy and have positive impact on their foreign language learning.
To mention here as a complement, when cognitive styles are specifically related to an educational context, where affective and physiological factors are intermingled, they are usually more generally referred to as learning styles. Dunn et al.(1972), Trayer(1991), Hartnett(1985), and H.D. Brown (1973) reviewed a number of style relating to the teaching-learning process in general and specifically to second language learning.(H.D. Brown, 2002)
2. Field-dependence and field-independence
(1) Definition
The most common cognitive styles discussed in literatures are field-dependence and field-independence. The description of field-dependence and field-independence may have various editions. For example, imagine standing in a room that is slow leaning to one side without the people inside it knowing. Some people attempt to stand upright; others lean so that they are parallel to the walls. Those who lean have a field-dependent cognitive style, that is to say, their thinking relates to their surroundings. Those who stand upright have a field-independent style, and they think independently of their surroundings. (H.D. Brown, 2002)
Field-dependence and field-independence can also be understood as follows. If people are field-dependent, their perception is dominated by the whole context, that is, they perceive things in relation to the context, whereas field-independence people perceive items as discrete of unrelated to the surrounding “field”. In general psychological terms, the word “field” may be perceptual or it may be more abstract in referring to a set of thoughts, ideas, or feelings from which your task is to perceive specific relevant subsets.
(2) Test
To make sure individuals belong to field-dependence or field-independence, they may be asked to do some tests. The most widely used test of field-dependence/ independence in language learning studies is the Embedded Figure Test. Those who can pick out shapes despite confusing backgrounds are field-independent; those who cannot are field-dependent.
For example, in one colorful and complex picture of a forest scene with exotic trees and flowers, one is required to find out certain objects like monkeys which camouflaged by the lines of what at first sight looked like just leaves and trees. The ability to find those hidden objects hinged upon the field-independent style. That is the ability to perceive a particular, relevant item or factor in a field of distracting items. Conversely, field-dependence is the tendency to be dependent on the total field so that the parts embedded within the field are not easily perceived, though the total field is perceived more clearly as a unified whole.
However, Griffiths and Sheen argued that this kind of test was unreasonable since field-dependence/ independence was measured by obscure tests of visual perception which bears little relation to learning style. Their viewpoints are rational to certain extent for the reason that there is no direct relationship between the ability of finding pictures and ability of literal comprehension.
(3) Features of field-dependence/ independence
Field-independent persons like to distinguish parts from a whole, to concentrate on something, and to analyze separate variables without the contamination of neighboring variables. However, the shortcomings of them are, as the saying goes, “You cannot see the forest for the trees.” Field-dependent persons perceive the whole picture, the large view, and the general configuration of a problem or idea of event.
II. Field-dependence/ independence and foreign language learning
1. Background
Although the concept of field-dependence/ independence has been challenged by Griffiths and Sheen, there has been dozens of studies carried out investigating the relationship of field-dependence/ independence to successful language learning. Some of them claim to have found that people scoring higher on a test of field-independence tend to do better than others at learning a foreign language. (d’Anglejan and Renaud 1985). In recent years, some researchers in our country, like Mr. Wu Yian, Liu Runqing and Xu Weicheng, do great contribution in this area. Their research shows that field-independent learners have better academic outcomes in language tests and they have more advantages than field-dependent learners when getting certain levels in language learning.
Therefore, among all the strongly critical voice, it cannot be denied that the theory of field-dependence/ independence has been exerting an irrefragable significance for foreign language learning. We should regard the advantages of field-independence as relatively rather than absolute ones. Lots of previous researches showed that the priority of field-independence to field-dependence only lies in vocabulary and grammar, reading and writing, but on the contrary, field-dependence have more advantages in listening.
Any individual is located somewhere on the continuum between the pole of field-dependence and field-independence which stand for two totally converse attitudes and tendencies in dealing with problems. People usually tend to be dominant in one mode of field-dependence/ independence or the other. That is not to say one’s cognitive style is stable and unchangeable, rather it is dynamic and affected by many other factors, such as intelligence, verbal-comprehension and attention-concentration.
2. The relationship between characteristic and field-dependence/ independence
In terms of characteristics, persons who are more predominantly field-independent tend to be generally more independent, competitive, and self-confident. When dealing with something, they would like to put their own feelings into it and are not likely to be affected by others, rather to make decisions by their own. Sometimes they are stubborn, hard to accept others’ opinions.
However, field-dependent persons tend to be more socialized, tend to derive their self-identity from persons around them, and are usually more empathic and perceptive of the feelings and thoughts of others.
There are four natural stages in learning process, concrete experience, reflection-observation, abstract conceptualization and active experimentation. Some learners will stay longer time in concrete experience stage and these people have the stable characteristics and those who stay longer in active experimentation stage are usually full of passion and have dynamic characteristics.
Willing proposed Two-dimensional Framework of Learning Style after did research among adults Australian immigrants (Skehan, 1998:247) Learners are divided into four groups with this framework. They are convergers, conformists, concrete learners and communicative learners.
The convergers have strong ability of analysis and are good at independent thinking. They have tendency of “learning about language”. Conformists usually have little self-confidence, incline to depend on others, and like well-regulated teaching methods and traditional teaching environment. Similar to conformists, concrete learners also prefer the classroom teaching, but they would like to attend all kinds of activities in classroom teaching process to experience the process of learning. The last group, communicative learners, advocate to participate in the real world communicative activities. In their opinion, the most important thing in leaning is communication, therefore, sometimes they will ignore language forms and the function of teachers.
3. Field-dependence/ independence and foreign language learning
Field-independent learners usually achieve more in classroom teaching environment, however, field-dependent learners have more advantages outside the classroom when learning foreign languages. Field-dependent learners have strong tendency of communication and have more contact with foreigners, resulting in more language input. On account of the strong capability of analysis, field-independent learners can master the grammar rules better.
Some researchers carried out experiments by ways of “text recite” to find out the differences of field-dependent learners and field-independent learners. The results show that when reciting text, field-independent learners will take analytical attitude and skip over some content but can find out many kinds of meanings of ambiguous sentence.
Nevertheless, the field-dependent learners, as they usually take things as a whole, will recite text as a whole part and fully make imitations. When doing recite, they often pay attention to the socialized environment, welcome to socialized materials, and practice actively and easily affected by others.
Therefore, these two kinds of cognitive style learners will take different learning strategies, and their academic outcomes are related to whether they belong to field-dependence or field-independence. In CET-4 and CET-6 teaching practice, some learners with quiet and introversive characters often achieve satisfactory results, however, some extroverts who have lots of social activities do not achieve more than field-independent, even a part of them fail the examination.
In CET-4 and CET-6, most part of the test are multiple-choices, like listening comprehension, reading comprehension, cloze, and this kind of questions require more ability of analysis. Generally speaking, the ability of analysis is the base of comprehensive ability. The comprehension without the process of analysis is unreliable. Therefore, this is one reason why field-independent learners perform better than field-dependent learners. In foreign language learning, particularly at the beginning, the ability of analysis plays a significant role.
III. Field-dependence/ independence and foreign language teaching
There is a close relationship between language learning and teaching. Field-dependent learners and field-independent learners have different cognitive styles and adopt various kinds of learning strategies. Therefore, as foreign language teachers, they should pay much attention to this issue and change teaching methods according to different kinds of learner and different language skills to achieve better teaching result.
1. The problems of some teaching methods
The traditional English teaching method follow the principle which has benefits to field-independent learners. That is to give detailed and analytical explains to language points, sentence and passage structures. This type of teaching methods include grammar-translation method, reading method, which either pay attention to grammar rules analysis or the passage structure.
The other teaching methods, like audiolingual method, audiovisual method and communicative method, is suitable for field-dependent learners. Take listening skill for an example, field-dependent learners have better performance than field-independent learners. Field-dependent learners have relatively strong communicative competence which is required by listening skills. They are interested in information provided by others, pay attention to social clues, and are more competent to deal with people’s relationship. All these characters make it easy for them to understand what they hear, and the meaning of sentences.
The communicative skill refers to comprehend others’ meaning correctly and express one’s opinion fluently. However, to one’s regret, the appropriate teaching method is not applied to practices in listening and speaking. It is not the fault of teacher but the examination systems.
Take CET-4 and CET-6 for an example, the test for listening has been conceptualized. Learners are taught to “find out” the right answers through the analysis of four choices without listening what speakers talk about. For instance, if there is a choice which looks like longer or shorter than other choices, it has more possibility to be the right choice. If two choices are similar to large extent, both of them should not be the right one. Such kinds of ways are ridiculous and must be abandoned in language teaching immediately.
2. The implication of filed-dependence/ independence
Successful language learning requires the efforts both teachers and learners. First of all, it is necessary for teachers to identify learners’ cognitive style, to be more field-dependent or more field-independent. In teaching practice teacher should use appropriate teaching methods to various kind of learners. For instance, field-dependent learners show the character of “learn about language”, therefore, it is improper to use audiolingual teaching method since this method advocate “Learn language, not learn about language.”(Moulton, 1961)
Besides, teachers and learners should believe cognitive style is changeable and dynamic rather than fixed concept. Both field-dependent and field-independent have their own advantages when leaning foreign languages. What they should do is to take effective measures to bring their relatively advantages into full play. Therefore, when faced with specific teaching tasks, both teachers and learners should change their cognitive style consciously. It is a challenge for teachers to be both field-dependent and field-independent. In teaching practice, if teacher find learners cannot accept his or her teaching method, teacher should adapt his or her method immediately to seek a point to keep balance.
For example, according to the finding of Abraham that deductive teaching method is more suitable for field-independent learners and inductive teaching method for field-dependent learners. It gives inspiration for teachers not to use deductive or inductive teaching methods alone, but to combine both of them together, because no learner belongs to field-dependent or field-independent absolutely.
Conclusion
Cognitive style plays an important role in one’s foreign language learning. As one dimension of cognitive style, field-dependence/ independence exert an impact on one’s learning strategy and academic outcomes. It can be concluded that there is a close relationship between field-dependence/ independence and foreign language learning and teaching. Teachers have to change their own teaching methods according to different learners and different teaching tasks. Through change field-dependence and field-independence, learner can approve their language ability to some extent.
［Reference］
［1］Brown, H. D. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching ［M］.北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2002.
［2］Skehan, P. A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning ［M］ .Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998
［3］Stern, H. H. Fundamental Concepts of Language Teaching ［M］ . 上海:上海外语教育出版社,1999.
［4］Witkin H.A. Goodenough DR. Cognitive style Essence and Origins International Universities Press 1981. 38-47, 66-72
［5］曹南燕. 认知学习理论. 郑州:河南教育出版社,1991.
［6］谭顶良. 学习风格论. 南京:江苏教育出版社,1995.
（作者通讯地址：天津工业大学，天津 300387）
Key words: cognitive style; field-dependence; field-independence; foreign language teaching and learning
Introduction
Second language researchers have examined particular learner traits, such as cognitive style to find out their relationship to progress in foreign language leaning and teaching. Based on a brief account of the theory and practice of field-dependence/independence, this paper attempts to analyze the relationship between cognitive style and foreign language teaching and learning. Psychological literature indicates that a field-independent person possesses enhanced cognitive restructuring abilities, while a field-dependent individual is likely to possess well-developed interpersonal skills. It was hypothesized that field independence would be related to the acquisition of linguistic competence, and that field dependence would be related to the acquisition of communicative competence. In teaching practice, teachers should try to learn the difference of individuals and apply various kinds of teaching methods to different learners. At the same time, the language skills, listening and speaking, reading and writing should be given equal importance and be taught in different ways.
I. Brief introduction of cognitive style and field-dependence/ independence
1. Cognitive style
This term was initiated by Allport in 1937. The way we learn things in general and the particular attack we make on a problem seem to hinge on a rather amorphous link between personality and cognition. This link is referred to as cognitive style. In other words it relates to one’s habitual attitude and manner in the course of perception, memorization, thinking and problem-solving.
The research on cognitive style started from the forties of twenty century, prevailed at the beginning of seventies and then declined gradually. However, since we had entered nineties, the research on cognitive style has been drawing people’s attention once again and becoming increasingly significant in foreign language teaching area. From psychologists and linguists points of view, to get to understand learners’ cognitive style can provide relative information about their learning style, for instance, the ways of thinking when fulfill certain kinds of tasks. In response to it, teacher can adapt teaching methods to learners’ ways of thinking.
As foreign language teachers, when faced with different learning tasks and environment, it is exceedingly important to identify learners’ cognitive styles. It will help teachers to bring learner’s potential into full play and guide learners on the right track of learning strategy and have positive impact on their foreign language learning.
To mention here as a complement, when cognitive styles are specifically related to an educational context, where affective and physiological factors are intermingled, they are usually more generally referred to as learning styles. Dunn et al.(1972), Trayer(1991), Hartnett(1985), and H.D. Brown (1973) reviewed a number of style relating to the teaching-learning process in general and specifically to second language learning.(H.D. Brown, 2002)
2. Field-dependence and field-independence
(1) Definition
The most common cognitive styles discussed in literatures are field-dependence and field-independence. The description of field-dependence and field-independence may have various editions. For example, imagine standing in a room that is slow leaning to one side without the people inside it knowing. Some people attempt to stand upright; others lean so that they are parallel to the walls. Those who lean have a field-dependent cognitive style, that is to say, their thinking relates to their surroundings. Those who stand upright have a field-independent style, and they think independently of their surroundings. (H.D. Brown, 2002)
Field-dependence and field-independence can also be understood as follows. If people are field-dependent, their perception is dominated by the whole context, that is, they perceive things in relation to the context, whereas field-independence people perceive items as discrete of unrelated to the surrounding “field”. In general psychological terms, the word “field” may be perceptual or it may be more abstract in referring to a set of thoughts, ideas, or feelings from which your task is to perceive specific relevant subsets.
(2) Test
To make sure individuals belong to field-dependence or field-independence, they may be asked to do some tests. The most widely used test of field-dependence/ independence in language learning studies is the Embedded Figure Test. Those who can pick out shapes despite confusing backgrounds are field-independent; those who cannot are field-dependent.
For example, in one colorful and complex picture of a forest scene with exotic trees and flowers, one is required to find out certain objects like monkeys which camouflaged by the lines of what at first sight looked like just leaves and trees. The ability to find those hidden objects hinged upon the field-independent style. That is the ability to perceive a particular, relevant item or factor in a field of distracting items. Conversely, field-dependence is the tendency to be dependent on the total field so that the parts embedded within the field are not easily perceived, though the total field is perceived more clearly as a unified whole.
However, Griffiths and Sheen argued that this kind of test was unreasonable since field-dependence/ independence was measured by obscure tests of visual perception which bears little relation to learning style. Their viewpoints are rational to certain extent for the reason that there is no direct relationship between the ability of finding pictures and ability of literal comprehension.
(3) Features of field-dependence/ independence
Field-independent persons like to distinguish parts from a whole, to concentrate on something, and to analyze separate variables without the contamination of neighboring variables. However, the shortcomings of them are, as the saying goes, “You cannot see the forest for the trees.” Field-dependent persons perceive the whole picture, the large view, and the general configuration of a problem or idea of event.
II. Field-dependence/ independence and foreign language learning
1. Background
Although the concept of field-dependence/ independence has been challenged by Griffiths and Sheen, there has been dozens of studies carried out investigating the relationship of field-dependence/ independence to successful language learning. Some of them claim to have found that people scoring higher on a test of field-independence tend to do better than others at learning a foreign language. (d’Anglejan and Renaud 1985). In recent years, some researchers in our country, like Mr. Wu Yian, Liu Runqing and Xu Weicheng, do great contribution in this area. Their research shows that field-independent learners have better academic outcomes in language tests and they have more advantages than field-dependent learners when getting certain levels in language learning.
Therefore, among all the strongly critical voice, it cannot be denied that the theory of field-dependence/ independence has been exerting an irrefragable significance for foreign language learning. We should regard the advantages of field-independence as relatively rather than absolute ones. Lots of previous researches showed that the priority of field-independence to field-dependence only lies in vocabulary and grammar, reading and writing, but on the contrary, field-dependence have more advantages in listening.
Any individual is located somewhere on the continuum between the pole of field-dependence and field-independence which stand for two totally converse attitudes and tendencies in dealing with problems. People usually tend to be dominant in one mode of field-dependence/ independence or the other. That is not to say one’s cognitive style is stable and unchangeable, rather it is dynamic and affected by many other factors, such as intelligence, verbal-comprehension and attention-concentration.
2. The relationship between characteristic and field-dependence/ independence
In terms of characteristics, persons who are more predominantly field-independent tend to be generally more independent, competitive, and self-confident. When dealing with something, they would like to put their own feelings into it and are not likely to be affected by others, rather to make decisions by their own. Sometimes they are stubborn, hard to accept others’ opinions.
However, field-dependent persons tend to be more socialized, tend to derive their self-identity from persons around them, and are usually more empathic and perceptive of the feelings and thoughts of others.
There are four natural stages in learning process, concrete experience, reflection-observation, abstract conceptualization and active experimentation. Some learners will stay longer time in concrete experience stage and these people have the stable characteristics and those who stay longer in active experimentation stage are usually full of passion and have dynamic characteristics.
Willing proposed Two-dimensional Framework of Learning Style after did research among adults Australian immigrants (Skehan, 1998:247) Learners are divided into four groups with this framework. They are convergers, conformists, concrete learners and communicative learners.
The convergers have strong ability of analysis and are good at independent thinking. They have tendency of “learning about language”. Conformists usually have little self-confidence, incline to depend on others, and like well-regulated teaching methods and traditional teaching environment. Similar to conformists, concrete learners also prefer the classroom teaching, but they would like to attend all kinds of activities in classroom teaching process to experience the process of learning. The last group, communicative learners, advocate to participate in the real world communicative activities. In their opinion, the most important thing in leaning is communication, therefore, sometimes they will ignore language forms and the function of teachers.
3. Field-dependence/ independence and foreign language learning
Field-independent learners usually achieve more in classroom teaching environment, however, field-dependent learners have more advantages outside the classroom when learning foreign languages. Field-dependent learners have strong tendency of communication and have more contact with foreigners, resulting in more language input. On account of the strong capability of analysis, field-independent learners can master the grammar rules better.
Some researchers carried out experiments by ways of “text recite” to find out the differences of field-dependent learners and field-independent learners. The results show that when reciting text, field-independent learners will take analytical attitude and skip over some content but can find out many kinds of meanings of ambiguous sentence.
Nevertheless, the field-dependent learners, as they usually take things as a whole, will recite text as a whole part and fully make imitations. When doing recite, they often pay attention to the socialized environment, welcome to socialized materials, and practice actively and easily affected by others.
Therefore, these two kinds of cognitive style learners will take different learning strategies, and their academic outcomes are related to whether they belong to field-dependence or field-independence. In CET-4 and CET-6 teaching practice, some learners with quiet and introversive characters often achieve satisfactory results, however, some extroverts who have lots of social activities do not achieve more than field-independent, even a part of them fail the examination.
In CET-4 and CET-6, most part of the test are multiple-choices, like listening comprehension, reading comprehension, cloze, and this kind of questions require more ability of analysis. Generally speaking, the ability of analysis is the base of comprehensive ability. The comprehension without the process of analysis is unreliable. Therefore, this is one reason why field-independent learners perform better than field-dependent learners. In foreign language learning, particularly at the beginning, the ability of analysis plays a significant role.
III. Field-dependence/ independence and foreign language teaching
There is a close relationship between language learning and teaching. Field-dependent learners and field-independent learners have different cognitive styles and adopt various kinds of learning strategies. Therefore, as foreign language teachers, they should pay much attention to this issue and change teaching methods according to different kinds of learner and different language skills to achieve better teaching result.
1. The problems of some teaching methods
The traditional English teaching method follow the principle which has benefits to field-independent learners. That is to give detailed and analytical explains to language points, sentence and passage structures. This type of teaching methods include grammar-translation method, reading method, which either pay attention to grammar rules analysis or the passage structure.
The other teaching methods, like audiolingual method, audiovisual method and communicative method, is suitable for field-dependent learners. Take listening skill for an example, field-dependent learners have better performance than field-independent learners. Field-dependent learners have relatively strong communicative competence which is required by listening skills. They are interested in information provided by others, pay attention to social clues, and are more competent to deal with people’s relationship. All these characters make it easy for them to understand what they hear, and the meaning of sentences.
The communicative skill refers to comprehend others’ meaning correctly and express one’s opinion fluently. However, to one’s regret, the appropriate teaching method is not applied to practices in listening and speaking. It is not the fault of teacher but the examination systems.
Take CET-4 and CET-6 for an example, the test for listening has been conceptualized. Learners are taught to “find out” the right answers through the analysis of four choices without listening what speakers talk about. For instance, if there is a choice which looks like longer or shorter than other choices, it has more possibility to be the right choice. If two choices are similar to large extent, both of them should not be the right one. Such kinds of ways are ridiculous and must be abandoned in language teaching immediately.
2. The implication of filed-dependence/ independence
Successful language learning requires the efforts both teachers and learners. First of all, it is necessary for teachers to identify learners’ cognitive style, to be more field-dependent or more field-independent. In teaching practice teacher should use appropriate teaching methods to various kind of learners. For instance, field-dependent learners show the character of “learn about language”, therefore, it is improper to use audiolingual teaching method since this method advocate “Learn language, not learn about language.”(Moulton, 1961)
Besides, teachers and learners should believe cognitive style is changeable and dynamic rather than fixed concept. Both field-dependent and field-independent have their own advantages when leaning foreign languages. What they should do is to take effective measures to bring their relatively advantages into full play. Therefore, when faced with specific teaching tasks, both teachers and learners should change their cognitive style consciously. It is a challenge for teachers to be both field-dependent and field-independent. In teaching practice, if teacher find learners cannot accept his or her teaching method, teacher should adapt his or her method immediately to seek a point to keep balance.
For example, according to the finding of Abraham that deductive teaching method is more suitable for field-independent learners and inductive teaching method for field-dependent learners. It gives inspiration for teachers not to use deductive or inductive teaching methods alone, but to combine both of them together, because no learner belongs to field-dependent or field-independent absolutely.
Conclusion
Cognitive style plays an important role in one’s foreign language learning. As one dimension of cognitive style, field-dependence/ independence exert an impact on one’s learning strategy and academic outcomes. It can be concluded that there is a close relationship between field-dependence/ independence and foreign language learning and teaching. Teachers have to change their own teaching methods according to different learners and different teaching tasks. Through change field-dependence and field-independence, learner can approve their language ability to some extent.
［Reference］
［1］Brown, H. D. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching ［M］.北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2002.
［2］Skehan, P. A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning ［M］ .Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998
［3］Stern, H. H. Fundamental Concepts of Language Teaching ［M］ . 上海:上海外语教育出版社,1999.
［4］Witkin H.A. Goodenough DR. Cognitive style Essence and Origins International Universities Press 1981. 38-47, 66-72
［5］曹南燕. 认知学习理论. 郑州:河南教育出版社,1991.
［6］谭顶良. 学习风格论. 南京:江苏教育出版社,1995.
（作者通讯地址：天津工业大学，天津 300387）