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【Abstract】: This paper begins with the common and extensive definition of metaphor, and analyses the development of metaphor. Then, from another angle, it introduces some kinds of new metaphor concepts: structural metaphor, orientatioal metaphor and ontological metaphor. Through analysis from different aspects, the paper summarizes the definition and development of metaphor.
【Key words】: metaphor, definition, structural metaphor, orientatioal metaphor, ontological metaphor
1. Introduction
Words used in their original meaning are used literally, while words used in extended meanings for the purpose of making comparisons or calling up pictures in the reader’s or listener’s mind are used figuratively. Among them, figures of speech re the most common. Figures of speech are the common usage of English rhetoric. It is different from usual methods of directly, but to use the similarity of two things to compare with each other. Thus, it can impress the reader or listener’s specification, refection and rareness. To reader or listener, the works will become easier though they still keep the same meaning.
2. Metaphor
2.1 common definition
Metaphor is the use of a word which originally denotes one thing to refer to another with a similar quality. It is also a comparison but the comparison is implied, not expressed with the word “as” or “like”. If Roberto Bums had written “Oh my love’s a red, red rose.” With the word “like” Omitted, he would have used a metaphor instead of a simile. In the changed live, “My love” is also compared to a red rose, but there is a no word to indicate the comparison; hence “rose” is a metaphor. Similarly, in sentence like “He is the soul o the team” and “Irrigation is the lifeblood of agriculture”, “soul” and “lifeblood” are used metaphorically.
Metaphors are used not only after verb to be, and not only nouns can be used metaphorically.
e.g. (1) The world is a stage.
(2) Jim was a fox.
(3) The picture of these poor people’s lives was carved so sharply in his heart that he would never forget it.
(4) Some books are to be tasted, other swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested.
2.2 developing of metaphor
The study of metaphor started in the period of ancient Greece. It has been more than 2,000 years until now. The development of the study of metaphor through Rhetoric---Semantics---Pragmatics---cognition science and created theories, such as “contrast theory”, “substitutive theory”, “interaction theory”, etc. These metaphorical theories studied metaphor---a special language phenomenon---form many angles to make respective contribution for discovering the innate character of metaphor.
But the human’s cognition is endless. People usually think the study of metaphor has a character of fringe. Especially, Aristotle school of thought limited metaphor in the field of the study of poem, rhetoric. Until 19th century, England romantic poets, specially Plato school of thought believed that metaphor is a kind of machine—processed of society, thus it reflects not only language innate character, but also human’s intrinsic quality(Wang Guangcheng, 2000). Now, metaphor has become a study focus of cognitive model, because it plays an important role in human’s cognitive process. Actually, metaphor lies in the central situation of human’s cognitive and is burdened with producing meaning, transmitting and processing (Fauconnier, 1997,1).
3 2. extensive definition
As the concept of metaphor, therefore, we can use metaphorical concept to define metaphor, it means to express the concept of metaphor of metaphor through metaphor form.
2.3.1 structural metaphor
It means to know of one thing with the help of another thing’s structure. For instance, among good many of languages, there are some metaphorical concept, such as “Time is money”, “Politic is play-action”, “Argument is war”, “love is game”, etc. Among these different people and cultures people used the similar or same metaphorical concept. It is an aspect to show there is similar cognitive basis about metaphor in different countries.
2.3.2 orientational metaphor
It refers that people often consciously use lots of orientational words as metaphor when they are in cognition and considering. Especially, some abstract concepts, such as time, quantity, quality, status, etc. often pile up to space concept and form metaphorical concept. This is another concept of metaphor about another aspect.
e.g. (1) More is up; less is down.
(2) Our national income will climb another ladder.
(3) He’s really low these days.
(4) The American dream is that everyone has the equal opportunity to climb-up.
Whether in Chinese culture or English culture, it is not difficult for us to discover that people are used to replacing “good” with “up” or “high”, replacing “bad” with “down” or “low”. Thus it forms metaphorical concept. It can not only describe some abstract concept, but also imply people’s enjoyment, anger, sorrow, happy, health, status and so on.
2.3.3 ontological metaphor
It means to express an abstract concept through a concrete word.
e.g. (1) You ass! You stupid ass! How could you do a thing like that?
(2) The children were as busy as bees, making preparations for the festival.
Of course, beyond some metaphor constituted by some characters of animal, there still are another similar concrete metaphorical concept among English culture.
e.g. (1) Put down in black and white.
(2) It’s good fishing in trouble water.
Therefore, according to the above, we can draw a conclusion that metaphor is more than regarded as one kind of rhetoric which is studied for pure rhetoric, but it is regarded as one kind of basis means of mankind’s; cognition and thought, which is studied overall, systematically and from many angles.
Simultaneously, owing to the different metaphor containing mankind’s similar cognitive basis, metaphor or different culture also characterize somewhat similarity.
3. Concluding remarks
An Italian aestheticist, Weko said, “Generally, all the majority of a people’s language is figures of speech.”(New Science) Poets often use figuratively to write poems. Poets well relate different things through imagination, it makes one’s eyes bright, ears clear, and let readers feel the meaning of the poem is very profound. A French aetheticist, Deddilo ever said, “Beauty is relationship” (On Beauty). Shelley, a famous English poet pointed out “the language basis of poem is figures of speech. The language of poem discovers some relationship that has not been discovered by man but hiding in some objects, and make man not forget it forever.” (On Thinking in Image by foreign Exerts of Principle).
In accordance with the above analysis, we can distinguish respective definition and character on figures of speech. Therefore, we can acquire some latest view about figures of speech, especially metaphor. Long before, grammar experts were unable to definite metaphor actually, just for metaphor is not only rhetoric of a kind of language, but also a cognitive process of mankind. The writer believes that the readers can distinguish and master figures of speech through her survey on metaphor.
Bibliography:
[ 1] Kitay, E.F. “Metaphor: Its cognitive Forces and Linguistic Structure”, Oxford University Press, 1989
[2] Lkoff, G＆.Johnson, M., “Metaphor We Live by”, The University of Chicago Press, 1980
[3] Sperber, D＆.Wilson, D., Relevance: “Communication and Cognition”, 1986
[4] Wang Guangcheng ＆.Wang Xiuqing, “Foreign Language Education”, 2000
[5] Wu Bin,“A Handbook of Writing”, Beijing Foreign Language University Press,1994
[6] Zu Baoxong,“English Writing
【Key words】: metaphor, definition, structural metaphor, orientatioal metaphor, ontological metaphor
1. Introduction
Words used in their original meaning are used literally, while words used in extended meanings for the purpose of making comparisons or calling up pictures in the reader’s or listener’s mind are used figuratively. Among them, figures of speech re the most common. Figures of speech are the common usage of English rhetoric. It is different from usual methods of directly, but to use the similarity of two things to compare with each other. Thus, it can impress the reader or listener’s specification, refection and rareness. To reader or listener, the works will become easier though they still keep the same meaning.
2. Metaphor
2.1 common definition
Metaphor is the use of a word which originally denotes one thing to refer to another with a similar quality. It is also a comparison but the comparison is implied, not expressed with the word “as” or “like”. If Roberto Bums had written “Oh my love’s a red, red rose.” With the word “like” Omitted, he would have used a metaphor instead of a simile. In the changed live, “My love” is also compared to a red rose, but there is a no word to indicate the comparison; hence “rose” is a metaphor. Similarly, in sentence like “He is the soul o the team” and “Irrigation is the lifeblood of agriculture”, “soul” and “lifeblood” are used metaphorically.
Metaphors are used not only after verb to be, and not only nouns can be used metaphorically.
e.g. (1) The world is a stage.
(2) Jim was a fox.
(3) The picture of these poor people’s lives was carved so sharply in his heart that he would never forget it.
(4) Some books are to be tasted, other swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested.
2.2 developing of metaphor
The study of metaphor started in the period of ancient Greece. It has been more than 2,000 years until now. The development of the study of metaphor through Rhetoric---Semantics---Pragmatics---cognition science and created theories, such as “contrast theory”, “substitutive theory”, “interaction theory”, etc. These metaphorical theories studied metaphor---a special language phenomenon---form many angles to make respective contribution for discovering the innate character of metaphor.
But the human’s cognition is endless. People usually think the study of metaphor has a character of fringe. Especially, Aristotle school of thought limited metaphor in the field of the study of poem, rhetoric. Until 19th century, England romantic poets, specially Plato school of thought believed that metaphor is a kind of machine—processed of society, thus it reflects not only language innate character, but also human’s intrinsic quality(Wang Guangcheng, 2000). Now, metaphor has become a study focus of cognitive model, because it plays an important role in human’s cognitive process. Actually, metaphor lies in the central situation of human’s cognitive and is burdened with producing meaning, transmitting and processing (Fauconnier, 1997,1).
3 2. extensive definition
As the concept of metaphor, therefore, we can use metaphorical concept to define metaphor, it means to express the concept of metaphor of metaphor through metaphor form.
2.3.1 structural metaphor
It means to know of one thing with the help of another thing’s structure. For instance, among good many of languages, there are some metaphorical concept, such as “Time is money”, “Politic is play-action”, “Argument is war”, “love is game”, etc. Among these different people and cultures people used the similar or same metaphorical concept. It is an aspect to show there is similar cognitive basis about metaphor in different countries.
2.3.2 orientational metaphor
It refers that people often consciously use lots of orientational words as metaphor when they are in cognition and considering. Especially, some abstract concepts, such as time, quantity, quality, status, etc. often pile up to space concept and form metaphorical concept. This is another concept of metaphor about another aspect.
e.g. (1) More is up; less is down.
(2) Our national income will climb another ladder.
(3) He’s really low these days.
(4) The American dream is that everyone has the equal opportunity to climb-up.
Whether in Chinese culture or English culture, it is not difficult for us to discover that people are used to replacing “good” with “up” or “high”, replacing “bad” with “down” or “low”. Thus it forms metaphorical concept. It can not only describe some abstract concept, but also imply people’s enjoyment, anger, sorrow, happy, health, status and so on.
2.3.3 ontological metaphor
It means to express an abstract concept through a concrete word.
e.g. (1) You ass! You stupid ass! How could you do a thing like that?
(2) The children were as busy as bees, making preparations for the festival.
Of course, beyond some metaphor constituted by some characters of animal, there still are another similar concrete metaphorical concept among English culture.
e.g. (1) Put down in black and white.
(2) It’s good fishing in trouble water.
Therefore, according to the above, we can draw a conclusion that metaphor is more than regarded as one kind of rhetoric which is studied for pure rhetoric, but it is regarded as one kind of basis means of mankind’s; cognition and thought, which is studied overall, systematically and from many angles.
Simultaneously, owing to the different metaphor containing mankind’s similar cognitive basis, metaphor or different culture also characterize somewhat similarity.
3. Concluding remarks
An Italian aestheticist, Weko said, “Generally, all the majority of a people’s language is figures of speech.”(New Science) Poets often use figuratively to write poems. Poets well relate different things through imagination, it makes one’s eyes bright, ears clear, and let readers feel the meaning of the poem is very profound. A French aetheticist, Deddilo ever said, “Beauty is relationship” (On Beauty). Shelley, a famous English poet pointed out “the language basis of poem is figures of speech. The language of poem discovers some relationship that has not been discovered by man but hiding in some objects, and make man not forget it forever.” (On Thinking in Image by foreign Exerts of Principle).
In accordance with the above analysis, we can distinguish respective definition and character on figures of speech. Therefore, we can acquire some latest view about figures of speech, especially metaphor. Long before, grammar experts were unable to definite metaphor actually, just for metaphor is not only rhetoric of a kind of language, but also a cognitive process of mankind. The writer believes that the readers can distinguish and master figures of speech through her survey on metaphor.
Bibliography:
[ 1] Kitay, E.F. “Metaphor: Its cognitive Forces and Linguistic Structure”, Oxford University Press, 1989
[2] Lkoff, G＆.Johnson, M., “Metaphor We Live by”, The University of Chicago Press, 1980
[3] Sperber, D＆.Wilson, D., Relevance: “Communication and Cognition”, 1986
[4] Wang Guangcheng ＆.Wang Xiuqing, “Foreign Language Education”, 2000
[5] Wu Bin,“A Handbook of Writing”, Beijing Foreign Language University Press,1994
[6] Zu Baoxong,“English Writing